Second, did gender roles change with increased financial resources? In other words, did

women use remittances for reproductive or productive activities? This research defined

productive activities as formal and informal businesses, such as cattle ranching, coffee

cultivation, and grain sales; and milk and cheese production. Reproductive activities were those

that sustained the household and contributed to the purchase of housing, food, clothes, education,

and firewood. Land purchases for home construction and home improvements were considered

productive activities. Small homebound stores were not considered productive since they did not

conflict with traditional gender roles, helped sustain the household, and rarely implied profit. I

hypothesized that in households with members abroad, there would be a shift in gender roles

once women began using more household resources for investment.

 Third, did Maya and Ladinos share the same normative gender roles and relations? Since

past research suggested that there would be a great difference between Maya and Ladino

women's gender roles and relations with their husbands, I postulated that non-migrant women

from the Maya community would engage in more traditional activities and reflect a more

traditional view of gender norms.

 Fourth, was there a connection between a migrant's length of time in United States and the

wife engaging in productive activities? The fourth hypothesis stated that as the migrant's time

away increased, remittance receipts would decrease and the likelihood that women would engage

in income-generating activities would increase.

 Research Methods

 I conducted a community-based comparative study using various research methods:

participant observation, in-depth semi-structured interviews, focus groups, life histories,

structured ethnographic surveys, and digital video and photography.