problem solving learning. Furthermore, Kirton (2003) claims that adaptive learners have

preferences of inductive thinking methods leading to better problem representation, while

innovative learners tend to use deductive thinking methods to proliferate more ideas (p.

172). Again, both problem representation and idea generation are components of the

problem solving process. The process of learning and learning style may not be

completely independent as Kirton suggests. In addition to this, effective learning from

problem solving requires the learner to use cognitive techniques that correspond with

adaptiveness and innovativeness (Pask, 1976) while manipulating a principle to solve a

problem. If coping behavior is required for an individual to be more adaptive or

innovative, there is theoretical evidence that in problem solving learning stress is

inevitable and motivation is needed to complete the problem solving learning process.

Learning Style and Learning Level

 Kirton (1994) further separates problem solving in terms of cognitive level and

cognitive style. Whereas cognitive style is fixed, innate and guides preferences of

structure for solving problems, cognitive level is the capability to solve problems at a

degree of complexity (Kirton). Examples of cognitive level include intelligence,

creativity, academic achievement, etc. Again, the separation of cognitive style from

cognitive level is the strength of A-I theory. The distinction and accurate measurement of

cognitive style allows for the precise measure of other variables such as student

intelligence, engagement, and motivation.

 According to A-I theory, all people can creatively solve problems and have

original ideas (Goldsmith, 1994). However when solving problems, people who are more

adaptive tend to produce a smaller number of ideas with a narrower perspective that tend

to be more relevant, sound and useful while utilizing given rules. People who are more