traditionalist because they refused to adopt all the new introduced innovations (Perdue,

1991).

 Heated conflict ensued between the American and Indian cultures in the east.

Settlers forcefully and "lawfully" took lands owned by Cherokees. Americans destroyed

Cherokee agricultural lands to motivate them to move west. Eventually those who did not

voluntarily move to Indian Territory were forced to move there in 1838 as a result of the

signing of the Treaty of New Echota in 1835 (Hurt, 1987). The treaty stated that the

United States would purchase all land owned by the Cherokee Nation east of the

Mississippi for five million dollars. The signing of the treaty was highly contentious and

not all Cherokee leaders were present during the signing or willing to move. Thus, many

Cherokees were forced to move in large groups during the winter of 1838 in

dispatchments of 1,000 people each after being held in prisoner camps. The path they

traveled is known as the "Trail of Tears" (Wahrhaftig, 1966).

 Overall, tensions increased between Cherokees and white settlers over land

holdings. This conflict eventually led to the emigration of many Cherokee to Indian

Territory. Numerous policies were passed to encourage assimilation through farming. A

distinction became evident between the lifestyle and agricultural activities of the

subsistence and commercial farmers. Communal land ownership and farming were being

replaced by private land ownership and family run farms. The division of labor changed

from farming as being a female oriented activity to that of a male activity. Farming

became less of a subsistence activity and more cash and commercial oriented. This was

due to the introduction of numerous farm implements, the wide use of metal tools,

cultivation of introduced plant varieties, such as cotton, and education programs.