real and artificial seedlings indicate that litterfall can become an important cause of

damage after the early establishment period. Although there was no relationship between

shade tolerance and the types of mechanical damage affecting each species,

shade-tolerant species with stronger stems survived more often after damage, suggesting

that investment in strong stems is beneficial for seedling performance. The combined

effects of species-specific and indiscriminate damage agents, and species differences in

the responses to damage determine seedling performance. The resulting differences in

survival allow different species to succeed under different ecological conditions,

ultimately contributing to plant diversity in tropical forests.