health implications, are osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. The more prevalent of the

two forms, osteoarthritis, is estimated to affect 20 million people in the United States

(Praemer, et al.1999).

 The Relationship of Background Contextual Stimuli and Pain

Age, Pain, and Osteoarthritis

 Anderson, et al. (1993) found that 90% of individuals surveyed experienced

chronic musculoskeletal pain. Chronic pain symptoms increased between ages 50-64 and

then gradually declined. After age 60, however, the incidence of lower extremity pain

increased. Compared to younger adults, lower joint pain doubled after age 65 (Anderson,

et al. 1993; Gibson & Helme, 1995). In the Iowa study, Mobily, et al. (1994) observed a

lower incidence of overall pain (p< .0001) among those over 85 years compared to

younger age groups. They also found more than 86% of those surveyed experienced pain

longer than 12 months. Their research is felt to be particularly accurate because of their

large sample size and the longitudinal study design.

 Several studies have examined the influence of age on pain sensitivity. Gibson and

Helme ((1995) examined sensitivity to several different forms of experimental pain using

a meta-analysis. Their data suggest a decline in thermal sensitivity after age 60, but do

not show a conclusive difference, or change, in pain sensitivity or pain tolerance. An

earlier study by Helme and Allen (1992) had found that the majority of those surveyed

(79%) agreed that pain was a consequence of the aging process. However, less than half

of these older adults reported pain. The authors concluded that older adults expected to

experience pain as they aged and they did.