frustration whereas women become more passive and direct aggression against
themselves. Males' proclivity toward aggression and narcissistic rage seem to reflect the
gender-specific social rearing and relational expectations that promote independence and
self-assertion for males and overinvestment and overidentificattion with significant others
for females. For a more detailed discussion of the impact of unbalanced gender-specific
socialization on narcissistic development, refer to William Beers's Women and Sacrifice:
Male Narcissism and the Psychology of Religion (Detroit: Wayne State UP, 1992); Ilene
Philipson, "Gender and Narcissism," Psychology of Women Quarterly 9 (1985): 213-228;
Ronnie Janoff-Bulman and Irene Hanson Frieze, "The Role Gender in Reactions to
Criminal Victimization," Gender and Stress, eds. Rosalind C. Barnett, Lois Biener, and
Grance K. Baruch (New York: Free Press, 1987).

136 Kohut, The Restoration of the Self, 116. For his theory of aggression, refer to pp.111-
131 of the same book.

137 Carth, "Traumatic Departures: Survival and History in Freud," 30.

138 Maurice Blanchot, The Writing of the Disaster, trans. Ann Smock. (Lincoln: U of
Nebraska P, 1986), 28.

139 Henry Krystal, "Trauma and Aging," Trauma: Exploration in Memory, ed. Cathy
Caruth (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1995), 85.

140 Kent D. Harber and James W. Pennebaker, "Overcoming Traumatic Memory," The
Handbook of Emotion andMemory, ed. Sven-Ake Christianson (Hillsdale: Lawrence
Earlbaum Associates, 1992), 377. Also see Spence, "Turning Happenings into Meaning,"
139-148.

141 Joseph LeDoux, The Emotional Brain: The Mysterious Underpinnings of Emotional
Life (New York: Touchstone, 1996); Bessel van der Kolk, "The Body Keeps the Scores:
Memory and the Evolving Psychobiology of Posttraumatic Stress," Harvard Review of
Psychiatry 1 (1994): 253-265; Bessel van der Kolk, "Traumatic Memories," Trauma and
Memory: Clinical and Legal Controversies. eds. Paul S. Appelbaum, Lisa A. Uyehahara,
and Mark R. Elin (Oxford: Oxford UP, 1997); Regina Pally, The Mind-Body Relationship
(New York: Karnac Books, 2000); J. Douglas Bremner, "Traumatic Memories Lost and
Found," Trauma and Memory. eds. Linda M. Williams and Victoria L. Banyard
(Thousand Oaks: Sage, 1999); Wilma Bucci, "Dual Coding: A Cognitive Model for
Psychoanalytic Research," Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 33
(1985), 571-607.

142 Joseph LeDoux, The Emotional Brain, 179-224; Joseph LeDoux, "Emotion as
Memory: Anatomical Systems Underlying Indelible Neural Traces," The Handbook of
Emotion andMemory, ed. Sven-Ake Christianson (Hillsdale: Lawrence Earlbaum
Associates, 1992), 264-286.