clinical studies and indicated that approximately 20% of low-achieving readers have

some type of visual problems such as visual-spatial problems, visual-perceptual deficits,

or visual-memory problems. This sample includes 36 children who show very low

reading fluency level (less than 25 percentile). Therefore, approximately 20% of children

with low-reading fluency may have vision-related reading problems.

 Gender Differences

 Group means on all measures were calculated, and a one-way analysis of variance

(ANOVA) was conducted to see if there are any gender differences. Table 4-5 provides a

summary of the one-way ANOVA of all the measures.

Table 4-5. ANOVA Summaries on Gender Differences
Latent Variables Boys Girls ANOVA
 Observed Variables Mean SD Mean SD F p
Phonological Awareness
 Elision 13.12 4.47 12.61 4.32 .714 .399
 Blending into words 12.60 3.45 12.85 3.11 .308 .579
Rapid Naming
 Digit naming 37.95 11.89 35.74 9.45 2.239 .136
 Letter naming 42.00 13.61 39.52 9.88 2.321 .129
 Eye Movement/Orthographic
Skills
 DEM vertical test 49.10 16.42 46.45 11.83 1.836 .177
 DEM horizontal test 70.45 26.49 67.84 22.12 .607 .437
 Reversal Test 3.39 2.82 3.23 3.98 .112 .738
Visual Processing Skills
 Visual Discrimination 12.79 2.43 12.86 2.04 .044 .835
 Visual Memory 12.16 2.69 12.21 2.15 .020 .887
 Visual Closure 10.12 3.55 10.38 3.25 .320 .572
Reading Fluency
 Fluency I (wpm*) 119.64 45.89 123.89 44.82 .460 .498
 Fluency II (wpm) 108.13 40.27 110.63 38.76 .209 .647

* wpm: word per minute