letters is used for assessing rapid naming. The CTOPP provides percentiles, standard

scores, and age and grade equivalents. Subtest standard scores have a mean of 10 and a

standard deviation of 3. The Phonological Awareness has a mean of 100 and a standard

deviation of 15. Age and grade equivalents show the relative standing of individuals'

scores. The CTOPP was normed on over 1,600 individuals ranging in age from 5 through

24 and residing in 30 states. Over half of the norming sample came from children in

elementary school (through Grade 5), where the CTOPP is expected to have its widest

use. The demographic characteristics of the normative sample are representative of the

U.S. population as a whole with regard to gender, race, ethnicity, residence, family

income, educational attainment of parents, and geographic regions. The sample

characteristics were stratified by age and keyed to the demographic characteristics

reported in the 1997 Statistical Abstract of the United States. Reliability of the CTOPP

was investigated using estimates of content sampling, time sampling, and scorer

differences. Most of the average internal consistency or alternate forms of reliability

coefficients (content sampling) exceed .80. The test/retest (time sampling) coefficients

range from .70 to .92. The magnitude of the coefficients reported from all the reliability

studies suggests that there is limited error in the CTOPP and that examiners can have

confidence in the results (Wagner et al., 1999).

 Jordan Left-Right Reversal Test (J L-RRT). The Jordan Left-Right Reversal

Test (J L-RRT) is used for assessing one visual skill regarding orthographic processing. It

tests memory for spatial orientation of upper/lower case letters and numerals. Visual

reversals have been commonly accepted as one of a constellation of symptoms of

learning disabilities in children (Jordan, 1980). The J L-RRT is a norm- referenced test