or within the family. The association between criminal victimization and depressive

symptoms was larger for those early adolescents living in communities with lower ethnic

identity. This study did not specifically utilize a resiliency framework, but it was a multi-

community study that included 810 children and early adolescents (Simmons et al.)

 This body of research provides an interesting framework for studying the

protective nature of ethnic identity in minority adolescents. However, due to the nature of

the resiliency framework, it is best suited for studying adolescents at risk for certain

problems (e.g., substance abuse or academic failure). The construct of ethnic identity

development is relevant to ethnic minority adolescents despite their risk status.

Ethnic Identity and Adverse Mental Health Outcomes

 There is a growing body of literature that has examined ethnic identity and its

relationship to adverse mental health outcomes in school-based samples. Based on the

consistent finding that ethnic identity is directly related to positive mental health

functioning, researchers have begun to examine the question of its relationship to

negative outcomes. Findings have demonstrated that ethnic identity achievement has both

direct and indirect effects on adverse mental health outcomes depending on the

methodology utilized and the sample. The various findings related to this topic are

described here and contradictory results are discussed along with methodological issues.

 Several studies have examined ethnic identity and levels of depressive and

anxious symptoms (Arroyo & Zigler, 1995; Caldwell, Zimmerman, Bernat, Sellers, &

Notaro, 2002; Dubois, Burk-Braxton, et al., 2002; McMahon & Watts, 2002; Roberts et

al., 1999; Rotheram-Borus, 1989; Simons et al., 2002). Research involving African

American and Puerto Rican high school students found differential relationships between

phases of ethnic identity development and internalizing and externalizing symptomology