problems in spite of serious risk has led to a shift in the focus of research to the

identification of factors that promote resiliency.

 A growing area of research has examined ethnic identity within the risk and

resiliency framework (Brook, Balka, et al., 1998; Brook, Whiteman, et al., 1998; Miller

& Macintosh, 1999; Scheier, Botvin, Diaz, & Ifill-Williams, 1997). These studies have

evaluated how protective ethnic identity achievement is against adverse mental health

outcomes.

 Brook, Balka, and colleagues (1998) utilized several measures of ethnic identity

in a sample of 627 African American adolescents. African American awareness and

church attendance had a main effect on drug involvement. Those participants that

reported more African American awareness and that attended church regularly had lower

levels of drug involvement. The authors assessed risk and protective factors in multiple

domains (personality, family, peer, and ecological). Ethnic identity enhanced personality,

familial and peer protective factors. It protected against drug use in the face of

personality (i.e., depressive symptoms) and ecological risk factors, such as drug offering

strangers (Brook, Balka, et al.).

 A similar study of 555 Puerto Rican adolescents found that ethnic identity

ameliorated several known risk factors for substance abuse and enhanced other protective

factors (Brook, Whiteman, et al., 1998). Spanish language preference and immigrant

status (as measures of ethnic identity) were both associated with lower levels of

substance abuse. In addition, several aspects of ethnic identity (e.g., affirmation and

belonging; familism; Hispanic awareness) were found to enhance resiliency or to be

protective against substance use (Brook, Whiteman, et al.).