This coping style included direct problem-solving, seeking understanding, and positive

cognitive restructuring (McMahon & Watts). Constantine and colleagues (2002) found

that public self-esteem and the importance of collective self-esteem (defined similarity to

ethnic identity) were associated with culturally specific coping behaviors or Africultural

coping styles. In a sample of 106 African American adolescents, public self-esteem (or

how one believes their group is viewed by others) was associated with more use of

spiritually-centered coping. Greater importance of collective self-esteem was associated

with more collective coping (Constantine et al.).

 These studies provide significant evidence for the positive nature of ethnic

identity development. Its association with positive psychological constructs (e.g., self-

esteem, effective coping styles, self-efficacy) places it in the realm of healthy or adaptive

development for those with minority status. Ethnic identity can be viewed as an aspect of

self-concept that develops in psychologically healthy individuals. That is not to say that

each individual requires the same level of this factor. It is only to say that a secure sense

of oneself as an ethnic group member is a positive aspect of self-concept.

Resiliency Models of Ethnic Identity

 The broad conceptual framework of risk and resiliency has been utilized within

the disciplines of developmental psychology, medicine and nursing (Mandleco & Peery,

2000; Resnick, 2000; Werner, 1986). This framework is simple in that there are two

primary concepts, risk and resiliency. Risk factors are those factors (e.g., individual,

familial or social) that increase a person's chances of becoming ill? Resiliency factors are

those factors that increase a child's or adolescent's chances to complete healthy

development in the face of adversity or known risk factors (Garmezy, 1991; Werner,

1986). The finding that some individuals are able to avoid serious illness or behavioral