otherwise noted, the term ethnic identity refers to the overall level of ethnic identity

achievement for the adolescent.

Ethnic Identity and Positive Mental Health Functioning

 The majority of research that has measured ethnic identity in adolescents has

compared this construct to positive aspects of mental health and psychological

functioning. The most commonly studied construct has been self-esteem (See Phinney,

1991 for a review). Other research has compared ethnic identity levels to aspects of self-

concept, self-efficacy, and academic achievement (Beale Spencer, Noll, Stoltzfus, &

Harpalani, 2001; Phinney, 1992; Phinney & Chavira, 1992; Smith, Walker, Fields,

Brookins, & Seay, 1999;). Effective coping styles and culturally based coping have also

been associated with ethnic identity (Constantine, Donnelly, & Myers, 2002; McMahon

& Watts, 2002; Phinney & Chavira, 1995)

 Research connecting ethnic identity and self-esteem, has consistently found a

positive relationship (Phinney, 1992; Phinney & Chavira, 1992). Ethnic identity was

positively correlated with self-esteem in the minority participants of a sample of 417 high

school and 136 college students. This was not found in the white students, with one

exception. Ethnic identity was associated with self-esteem for the white students that

were the minority within their school (Phinney, 1992). This demonstrates that self-esteem

is related to ethnic identity for those with minority status and that the relevance of this

status may be contextual. In other words, minority status in one setting may make ethnic

identity salient in that context despite majority status in the larger social context.

 Ethnic identity was also positively related to self-esteem levels longitudinally in a

sample of African American and Hispanic high school students that were followed into

young adulthood (Phinney & Chavira, 1992). Those with an achieved ethnic identity had