* Similarly, the Southern Mindanao Baptist Rural Life Centre (Philippines) has identi-
 fied integrated methods of managing hillslopes using Sloping Agricultural Land
 Technologies (Watson and Laquihon, 1993).

Most NGO research efforts are, however, at the adaptive end of the spectrum. For instance:

* In India, PRADAN has scaled down technologies developed by government institutes
 for mushroom and raw silk production, and for leather processing and, in the case of
 the latter, has devised integrated schemes of credit and marketing (Vasimalai, 1993).

* In East Africa, NGOs have been testing new crop varieties in Zambia and in Zimbabwe,
 and have been adapting tree managementpractices in Zimbabwe, and Kenya (Copestake,
 1990; Mung'ala and Arum, 1991; Ndiweni et al., 1991).

Dissemination Methods

In general NGOs have sought to develop participatory dissemination methods. For instance:

* In Thailand, the Appropriate Technology Association developed farmer-to-farmer
 methods of disseminating rice-fish farming technologies which have subsequently
 been adapted by the Department of Agriculture (Sollows, et al., 1991).

* In Ecuador, CESA has developed systems for farmer-managed seed multiplication and
 distribution (CESA, 1991).


Training Activities and Methods

A number of NGOs train both members of other NGOs and of GOs in participatory methods,
(Fernandez, 1993; Chakraborty et al., 1993; Berdegue, 1990). A recently emerging role for
NGOs is that of intermediary. For instance:

* In Gujarat, India, the Aga Khan Rural Support Project (AKRSP) identified village
 training needs through discussions with farmer groups (Shah and Mane, 1993).
 Initially, AKSRP organised government provision of this training, but the courses were
 formal in style (lectures in a classroom), and farmers' evaluations showed that they had
 learned little of practical value from them. In response, AKRSP developed an
 alternative training and dissemination methodology which it tested over several areas.
 Government staff were then brought in to observe, participate in and, finally, adopt the
 methodology. Successful adoption was reinforced by informal networks, and ex-
 change of experience at workshops and consultations.

* In a different context, the International Institute for Rural Reconstruction in the
 Philippines brought together resource people from NGOs and GOs at a one-week


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