Gully control is another case in which farmers concentrate soil to increase productivity. Loose
boulder checks with occasional vegetative barriers on the boundary lines help "harvest" the soil.
Over the years, the height of these barriers is increased so that eroded lands can be reclaimed and
new patches of cultivable land created within the gullies. Silt harvesting structures are displayed
in Figure 4. In hilly areas, such deposition fields are the most productive land because the gully
supplies continuous moisture. Such favorable micro-environments are also important for
reducing risk in rainfed agriculture (Chambers, 1991).

Another way to increase the productivity of SWC investments is to line field bunds with fodder
grass or other useful plants, both to strengthen them and provide additional income. Custard apple
trees often grow through stone bunds, for example. Past programmes did not emphasize this
opportunity.

Some new programmes promote vegetative bunds rather than earthen bunds.7 Perennial grass
bunds can satisfy the requirements of multiple objectives (if they provide fodder or fuel, for
example) and, depending on growth conditions, require only a small initial investment. More ex-
perimentation is needed on multipurpose vegetative bunds. To date, programmes have promoted
grass bunds placed on the contour, but they have not tried them on boundaries.8

In summary, field observations indicate that researchers and extension workers can learn from
indigenous SWC technologies. These technologies meet farmers' multiple objectives more
effectively than do recommended practices based on contour bunds, leading to greater acceptance
and higher adoption on small, fragmented farms. To achieve maximum impact, SWC pro-
grammes should be flexible to blend indigenous and recommended practices. Several innovative
programmes in India are experimenting with such flexible approaches. Their early experience has
shown that farmer input into technology design increases adoption. NGOs have pioneered these
efforts, and some government schemes have followed suit.9 National watershed development
authorities have proposed a more flexible strategy to promote SWC; concrete plans are still being
formalized.'0


 Economic Determinants of Investment in Indigenous Soil and
 Water Conservation Practices

 The discussion of indigenous SWC technologies clearly indicates that farmers are aware of soil
 erosion and have developed effective means to control it. However, the fact remains that most
 farmers do not undertake sufficient measures to control erosion effectively. In this section of the
 paper we attempt to explain why this so. We propose seven hypotheses regarding the determinants
 of investment in SWC, all of which are based on field observations."

 1. Farmers clearly perceive soil erosion and believe that it reduces yields. They are more
 concerned about the loss of water and nutrients associated with soil erosion than reduced
 depth of the soil itself.

 2. Farmers' investments fall as the opportunity cost of their time and other resources rise: other
 activities may have a higher return than conservation investments. This is commonly the


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