Economic Aspects of Controlling Institutions -
Technological advances affect the institutions that
emerge and the extent to which they favor large- or
small-scale producers. Some advances are size-neutral;
others favor either large- or small-scale producers.
Disciplinary research is needed on the economics and
sociology of these interactions of technology with institu-
tional structures. Interactions affecting size and
organization of food processing, storage and distribution
units and, hence, the structure of society are particularly
important. Institutions to control structural changes are
often needed.

 Institutional Decision Making and Administration -
The socio-econo-politico theory of how institutions
establish priorities, administer their activities, attain
their support and account to society is only partially
developed. Among those institutions servicing agri-
culture, the least understood may be the public
agricultural research institutions themselves.

 Measurement of Values The measurement of
monetary and non-monetary values is important need-
ed DISC research for economists. Logical positivism, the
dominant philosophy undergirding the biological and
physical sciences, takes the position that research on
values as characteristics of the real world is impossible.
Without such research (non-monetary and monetary, in-
trinsic and instrumental, exchange and total), PS and
SM research is seriously hampered. The positivistic
presupposition that values cannot be objectively re-
searched is now questioned by many philosophers and
others (Achinstein and. Barker, 1969). Alternative
philosophies hold that such research is possible (Moore,
1903; Lewis, 1955). Economists are concerned with both
monetary and non-monetary values and consistently
demonstrate capacity to do objective research on both.
 DISC research by economists, sociologists and political
scientists on values is required to set appropriate science
policy and research priorities for agriculture and to
evaluate project proposals and results. It is especially
needed for PS and SM research. Important is research
on how to measure the non-monetary as well as mone-
tary costs and returns of different forms of energy, the
prevention of soil erosion, and the multiple benefits from
forestry, water and range resources. Soil loss equations
are inadequate indices of the negative value of soil ero-
sion and of the disinvestments that convert arable land
into a less useful resource while ignoring the values of
capital invested in land. Similarly, energy accounts are
inadequate measures of the values of the different kinds
of energy used and produced. The traditional ARE is
widely criticized for pursuing inappropriate values
relating to resources. A major interest in agro-ethics is
developing. We must improve the measurement of
values important in setting policy for agricultural


sciences, for other agricultural policies and for PS and
much SM research.


Subject-Matter and Disciplinary Research
on Human Development of Importance
for Technological Advance in Agriculture

 Higher levels of education and greater skills are re-
quired as agricultural technology becomes more com-
plex to ensure its utilization and to create further
technological advances. Harvesting of several fruit and
vegetable crops has been essentially robotized to displace
unskilled laborers. Highly skilled laborers are now re-
quired to operate the harvesting equipment. Weeds, in-
sects and diseases were formerly controlled by hoeing,
hand removal of insects, crop management and applica-
tion of a relatively few unsophisticated insecticides. The
use of modern machines and pesticides is complex and
dangerous. Highly trained, skilled and licensed workers
are now required. This is also true for the administra-
tion of antibiotics, drugs and vaccines to control diseases
in livestock. The advent of integrated pest management,
conservation tillage and sanitized livestock production
systems has put new demands on those who operate and
manage modern agricultural production systems.

Subject-Matter Research on Human Development
 This area is treated incompletely. The concern is for
research on human development relevant to the crea-
tion and use of technological advances in agriculture.
Human development in rural areas, including that
related to farming, is a subject worthy of research and
as an adjunct to technological advance (Schultz, 1961).
 Home Economics/Human Ecology This is a tradi-
tional land-grant university SM area that functions as
a partner with agriculture in human development.
Home economics or human ecology research focuses on
the family, with specific concerns for nutrition, family
economics, child care, clothing, housing, family social
development and the near environment of the family.
New technology is at its best when developed jointly with
humanistic disciplines. In farming systems research
teams, the home economics/human ecology component
should be extensively involved. Agricultural economists
also have important roles to play in such research.
 The following are identified as research priorities
closely related to technological advance:
 Optimizing family incomes through household pro-
duction (much of which is non-monetized and untaxed)
and paid employment.
 Determining the impact of technological and finan-
cial change such as the purchase of technology and
interest rates.