ware PRIMARY PCOGRAPHE BY ALEX EVEREQ) GINYVE AUTHOR OF “CHILD AND NATURE,” “BROOKS AND BROOK BASINS,” ETC, BOSTON, U.S. A, GINN AND COMPANY, PUBLISHERS 1894 CoPpyRIGHT, 1894 By ALEX EVERETT FRYE ALL RIGHTS RESERVED PREFACH. —e Attention is mvited to the following features of this book :— Text.— The aim has been to use language suited to pupils of primary grades. Open the book at any page, and see whether the author has hit the mark. The subject is treated topically. The day of patchwork teaching has passed. Teachers have long been asking for a text-book based on the topical study of the earth. This book holds the earth as a unit before the mind, and relates all study to that unit. The memory is thus aided and much time is saved. The underlying principle of this work is comparison. Glance at the little maps on pages 29 and 33, and this thought will be made clear. Each part—ocean or grand division —§is shown in its relation to the whole and to the other parts. The text on PEOPLE centers in child-life. The word race has a deeper meaning than is taught by the size of cheek bones or the texture of hair. This book leads pupils ito the homes of the races. Read to a child one of the stories on pages 55 to 72, and note the result. . Plants and animals are studied in their relations to climate and physical features. Here, again, the earth is the unit of study. Belts of heat, and not mere zones of light, are made the basis of this work. Every child should know a great deal about his own state and about his own country. The various editions of this book present special state texts, while the body of the book treats of the leading industries of the United States as a whole. The cruel and senseless “study of countless details concerning the separate states is here replaced by a general view of the resources and industries of the whole nation. This work has been laid before thousands of teachers, and the author has yet to meet the first teacher who does not welcome the change. iv PREFACE. This book is not a-condensed edition of the larger book of the series. Primary Geography rests on a basis of its own. Only the leading topics of the science are here treated. These are clothed with stories of people, plants, animals, natural scenery, ete. A Manual of Methods, containing suggestions for teachers, accompanies this series of books. Pictures. — The pictures are true to nature. With but few exceptions they were engraved directly from photographs. The pictures supplement the text. A glance at pages 13 and 17 will show how they afford teachers an opportunity to lead far beyond the text. The pictures present typical forms. In place of mere definitions, or word-shells, the text and pictures bring pupils face to face with nature in its variety. See pages 10 and 11. The pictures are works of art. Tt is thought that they are superior to any ever before placed in a schoolbook. Acknowledgments.— In the treatment of types of natural features, as well as in criticism of other parts of the work, Professor W. M. Davis, Harvard University, has given very valuable assistance. The author desires to express his gratitude to Mr. Justin H. Smith, of Boston. Some of the leading features of this book embody his original thought. The relief maps were modeled under the supervision of the author, by Miss Gertrude Beatrice Wright, of the Normal Art School, Boston. The Industrial Maps of the United States were drawn by Mr. Henry Gannett, Chief Topographer of the United States Geological Survey. HAS He Rey cH ‘Boston, May, 1894. eS Tal, HOME GEOGRAPHY. GEOGRAPHY : Hints AnD VALLEYS Brooks AND Rivers SLOPES Kinps oF Soin Work oF WATER Loos Sort Rain In THE Sor How Sor sETrnes . Work or THE Brooxs Mup Banks orn Dentas . WATER AND Hzar Forms or WATER SPRINGS : Sources or STREAMS Wuerte Brooks FLOW SYSTEMS AND Basins Tue Tor oF A RipcE DrvipEs : How Snopes ARE WORN Brps oF STREAMS VALLEYS Mountains PLAINs SHore Forms . : : Work or Wartrr on SHORES Points oF THE COMPASS How Maps ARE MADE Reapine Mars THE HARTH. Form Aanp Sizk oF THE EartTe Waar A HInn IS MADE OF OF CONTENTS. ry & ANS ER AR wWwWwd NNR OomMDDDM 10 11 12 14 eee) “16 18 18 19 20 21 Wauat tHe EARTH IS MADE OF . THe AIR. 3 Tur SHELL or AIR THE Pours Tue Equator SLOPES OF THE EARTH. Tur Worip Riper AnprEs Higunianp : Rocky Mountain Higunanp HieguHnanp or TrBer HieHianp or ABYSSINIA. SLopEs rRom Wortp Riper SELVAS p WESTERN PLAINS TUNDRAS . : Drsrrt or SAHARA Tur Granp Divisions Tur OcEANS Borrom or tHe Sra Corat Isnanps SOUTH AMERICA. SurFrace or Soura AMERICA . Mar Srupies Amazon RIVER Hicguuanp or Brazin PAMPAS : Istamus or PANAMA . NORTH AMERICA. SurFace or Norra AMERICA. Map Srupies PAGE 21 21 21 22 23 ol 33 33 34 b4 84 35. 87 vi Tur Rocky MovuntTarIns . s Cotorapo CANon : 5 é Tom Hetent or Lanp Tur Muississtppr Basin Nortu or Heient or Lanp . AppALACHIAN HIGHLAND . ATLANTIC SLOPE Paciric SLOPE ASIA. Surrace or ASIA Mar SrupiIEs Arctic SLOPE . Caspian BAsIn PuAIns oF CHINA Tur GANGES BASIN EUROPE. SuRFACE OF EUROPE Map SrupDiEs ‘| : 3 Snopes FRoM Swiss HicgHLannD- Vaupar Hits Tur CASPIAN SEA BritisH IsiEs AFRICA. 4a SurracE or AFRICA Map StTupies Tur River NILE OasIs IN THE DESERT. Konceo Basin . AUSTRALIA. SurFAcE oF AUSTRALIA Mar StTupDIEs . PEOPLE. Trnpu, THE Konco Boy JAPAN AND ITS PEOPLE . Mazay or Brown PEoPLe . A Laruanp Home . Cuueiu, tHE Eskimo Boy . CHILDREN oF INDIAN TRIBES . Lanp or tHe ARABS . ‘CHILDREN OF THE LOWLANDS. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE i . 87 38 . 388 5 39 40 40 40 40 41 43 48 43 waa 44 45 AT AT 48 48 48 49 51 51 52 52 St OL rs oo CHILDREN OF THE HIGHLANDS Homes or THE RACES Homers or THE NATIONS Mar SrupikEs . HEAT, WIND AND RAIN. Home Lesson ror A Hot Day. How tHe Arr Is HEATED How tHe EARTH IS HEATED Hiew anp Low Lanp Tue SEASONS CHANGE OF SEASONS A Sion or SPRING Betts or Heat Tue TrapE WINDS Tur Gur STREAM. PLANTS. WHERE PLANTS GROW Som, Water anp Hear Puants or THE Hor Ber Puants or THE WARM BELts Puants oF THE CooL Betts Puants oF THE Corp Brrr Uses oF PLANTS. ANIMALS. Animats, — THEIR TEETH, ETC. ANIMALS AND THEIR Homes ANIMALS OF THE Heat BELTS Uszs or ANIMALS THE UNITED STATES. Surrace oF THE UNITED STATES PEOPLE Juny 4, 1776 . Map Srupirs orf STATES Lrapine Crrius Corton : . : Maize orn Inpran Corn . WHEAT For3Ests CATTLE CoaL Tron PAGE 73 73 74. 79 80 81° 82 82 82 83 83 84 86 87 88 89 89 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 GoLD AND SILVER. Routes or TRADE New York Boston New ORLEANS San FRANCISCO . PHILADELPHIA CHICAGO St. Louis NORTH AMERICA. Tur Unirep Staves . CANADA Mexico “ SOUTH AMERICA. BRAZIL . : g ARGENTINE REPUBLIC CHILE TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE 99 100 101 101 102 102 102 103 - 108 104 104 104 106 106 106 EUROPE. BritisH Isies GERMANY FRANCE ASIA. InDIA CHINA JAPAN AFRICA. Eeypr CAPE COLONY AUSTRALIA. VICTORIA New Souta WaALgEs SUPPLEMENT. vil PaGE 108 108 108 110 110 110 112 112 114 114 RELIEF MAP OF THE WORLD. Norr.—In this picture we view the earth from a point nearly over the British Isles. The southern half of South America cannot be seen frém this point. In order to bring it into sight, we must think of it as being lifted from the other side of the earth and swung round into the place where it now appears. The picture on page 77 shows still more of the land swung round from the side of the earth opposite that shown above. : The Earth in Space. HOME GEOGRAPHY. 1. Geography. — See Teachers’ Manual of Methods in Geography. Tuis book tells a story about the earth, — the great ball of land and water on which we live. ye a After studying that part of the earth which is near our school, we shall visit the homes of girls and boys in other lands. We shall see little yellow people feeding silkworms, and picking leaves from tea plants. The Arab boy will show us his father’s camels and horses, and will tell us about the great desert that spreads round his home. In the land of the brown people we shall find groves of spice, and the brown girls will weave pretty baskets for us. The Eskimo boy will show us how to crawl into his snow hut, and will tell us how his father hunts the seal for food and clothing. We may also peep into tall straw huts, and see the black people in their far-off home. We shall pass by acres and acres of waving grain, and wide fields hidden with soft white , cotton. We shall climb high mountains whose tops are buried in ice and snow. Every day of our journey will bring new sights, and tell new stories of the beautiful earth on which we live. A story of the earth and its people is called Geoyraphy. See page 126 for pronunciation of hard words. 2, a HILLS AND VALLEYS. 2. Hills and Valleys. Is there any level land near your school? Where? Is it exactly level? Does any water flow across it? Where have you seen a hill? Where have you seen a valley? Find’ pictures of two hills and two valleys in this book. How does a hill differ from a val- ley ? Find the swiftest part of the stream. Can you tell why the water flows swiftly in the rapids? Why does the river flow smoothly under the bridge ? Why do the brooks spread over the meadow and make a pond? : E- ; Find two pictures of rivers. How does a brook differ from a river ? 4. Slopes. Any land that slants is a slope. The side of a hill, or of a valley, is a slope. Some slopes are gentle, and others are steep. Where have you seen a gentle slope? Is there a steep slope near your school ? Most brooks that flow among hills are very swift. Can you tell why? Look at the meadow near the pond in the picture. Do you think that this meadow is just level? Why does the pond not spread out farther ? When a brook runs into a small hollow, it makes a pond. Rivers often flow into large hollows, and make lakes. =e If all the land were level, there would From Source to Mouth. i be no hills nor valleys, no ponds nor lakes, 3. Brooks and Rivers. no brooks nor rivers. How many brooks can you see in the picture ? Find three pictures of steep slopes, and Where does the water in the brooks come from? three pictures of gentle slopes. KINDS OF SOIL. 3 5. Kinds of Soil. Which is the finer, loam or sand? Loam or clay? Pour some water on loam, on sand and on clay.! Into which does the water sink most quickly ? Which dries soonest, the loam, the sand or the clay ? What becomes of plants that die, and of leaves that fall? Find as many kinds of soil as you can. kind in a bottle by itself. What kind of soil covers the fields Put each See the balloon! It is floating im the clear air, far above the clouds. -7. Loose Soil.® Pour some water on hard ground. Wait two minutes, then dig and see how far the water has settled. Loosen a little patch of ground with a spade, and pour on some water. After two minutes, find out how far it has gone into the soil. or yards near your school? Can you find out what is under the soil ? 6. Work of Water.’ How hard-it rains! The river is swift and muddy. Where does the muddy water come from? Let us go out on the side of the hill. Can you see the tiny streams or rills which the rain makes? Look closely! They are very small. Many of the rills are muddy. These are washing away the finest soil. Watch the rills that are rollmg sand down the steep places. The rills cannot carry sand very far. They must leave it in the hollows and on the level places. Can ‘you tell why? What will become of. the fine soil that -makes the rills muddy? The little streams will carry some of it down to the river. 1 A small box of each will answer for the entire class. 2 WEATHER Recorp.—In a notebook keep a daily record of the weather. In the afternoon write whether the day has been hot, warm, cool or cold; clear, cloudy, rainy or snowy; calm or windy. Be sure to write the date. This record will show you how to keep yours. ‘Dec. 6 . warm te os see. (Cold! rainy clear windy windy Rainstorm, Farmers plow in order to turn up fresh soil, and to loosen it, so that the rain can easily settle. Do you know what frost does to: the soil ? Dec. 8 . cool De es seo! calm windy clear * rainy Keep the record every school day for a year. Perhaps you can also take notes for holidays. At the end of the year you can count and find out which month has had the greatest number of warm days, rainy days, etc. ’ Home work for pupils who wish to try the exper- iment. ; 4 RAIN IN THE SOIL. / ground. seeds. | g. reen. Indian Corn. The water is taken into the roots of trees. It rises to the sleeping buds, and pretty leaflets unfold. Now the blossoms hang in clouds, and later they fall like snow. Grain sprouts, grows up and waves in the fields. At length the boughs bend low with fruit. Sheaves of wheat dot the fields, and long ears of corn ripen in the sun. All the time the plants are growing, water in the soil helps to feed them. Have you ever seen worms crawling out of the ground ? t Worms grind leaves, and mix them with soil. They bring rich earth to the surface, and make little mounds of it. x Sg 8. Rain in the Soil. When it rains, some yw water sinks mto the ; It mois- “tens the soil around At the right season they sprout and grow through the soil. The rain flows among grass roots, and little blades shoot up, making the fields Apple Blossoms. Have you ever watched ants building their hills? Do you know of any place where ants are at work near your school? Where do they get fine earth for their hills? Mounds made by worms and ants are often dotted over the fields. Raindrops spread these mounds, and carry some of the rich soil down again to the roots and seeds. Growing Pumpkins. 9. How Soil Settles. Mix fine soil in one glass of water, and coarse sand in another. Let the water stand for a while, and see what takes place. Which settles first, the soil or the sand ? Mix fine loam and coarse sand in a glass of water, and let it stand. Which settles on the other, the loam or the sand ? 10. Work of the Brooks. What is the swift part of a brook called? Can you tell why? Below the rapids there is a small pond. This pond is only a wide place in the brook. Rain has been falling, and the brook is muddy. It has a load of fine soil which the rills have brought from the slopes. MUD. BANKS Let us throw two or three pailfuls of gravel into the rapids. See what takes place. The pebbles sink in the rapids, where the water is swift. Some are rolling down the slope under the water. Can you tell what moves them ? Here is the sand below the rapids. Watch it spreading on the bottom. It looks like a great leaf. Why does the sand settle here? Why did it not settle in the rapids? Look into the , pond where the water is still. The muddy water is flowing into it. Let us wait a lit- tle while and find out where the fine soil goes. The part of the brook that flows out of the pond is not muddy. It has left the fine soil under the still water. If there were no pond, what would become of the muddy water ? f Il. Mud Banks ‘oF Deltas. Look once more at the mud on the bottom of the pond. When it rains again, more soil will be brought down by the rills and brook. In time a little mud bank will form near the place where the brook flows into the pond. When the water is low the mud will stand above it. OR DELTAS. 5 & After a long time the soil may fill the whole pond, except where the brook keeps a path or channel open. As the new bank of soil grows, grass and flowers will cover it, and make it look like other parts of the field. Thus, water wears down the high land and so makes the slopes more even... Mud banks that form where streams flow into still water are called deltas. A delta cannot form in water that moves swiftly. The soil is swept away and cannot settle. Most of the rivers in the world flow into a great body of salt water, called the ocean or the sea. Rivers make many deltas on the shores of the ocean. Some deltas are so , iarge that cities are built on them. = a Let us next find out where the water in brooks and rivers comes from. Rapids. 12. Water and Heat. Put a few drops of water into a tin cup, and heat it. Where does the water go ? The water in the cup changes into vapor. cannot see the vapor, but it is floating in the air. Heat a small bottle of water over a lamp. What takes place inside the bottle ? What comes from the bottle ? Hold a piece of cold glass in the cloud that you can see coming from the bottle. Of what is the cloud made ? Breathe against a cold window. breath ? Have you ever seen your breath ? cold day or on a.warm one ? We What is in the Was it on a the air.’ 6° FORMS OF WATHR. Put a little water into a shallow basin, and let it stand in the sun. Where does the water go? Into what does it change ? What makes the little cloud that comes from the kettle in the picture ? 13. Forms of Water. Put some water into a shallow basin, and let it stand in the sun. The water will slowly change into vapor, and float away in the air. We cannot see vapor. The kettle in the picture is sending out vapor which changes into a little cloud. The vapor is in the clear space near the mouth of the kettle. 3 Vapor rises from ponds, lakes, brooks and rivers, but most of it comes from the sea. When the air is cooled enough, some of the vapor in it changes into large clouds, such as we often see floating above us. Were you ever in a fog? Did it look like water dust? Fog is a cloud near the earth. When enough vapor has changed into cloud, some of the particles of water fall through - Many particles run together and ior dies of rain. Have you ever seen any hail? Did it look like frozen rain ? When the air is very cold a part of ie vapor in it sometimes freezes into crystals or flakes of snow. If you will catch some snow- flakes on a piece of black cloth, you will find that they have very pretty shapes. At night, when the grass and stones are cold, vapor often floats against them and changes into dew. Breathe against a cold window and against a warm sleeve. Upon which does dew form? On very cold nights vapor freezes on grass and stones and forms frost. A part of the dew and frost is formed of vapor that. rises from the damp earth. The ice-coat on water forms first at the surface. If the freezing began at the bottom, many lakes and streams would become solid masses of ice. The fish in them would die, and even the summer sun could not melt the ice in deep water. What are the uses of ice ? Perhaps these words will help you to think of some of the uses of water :— kitchen, travel, mill, plant, river, ram, ocean, well. SOURCES OF STREAMS. ‘li ie Springs. Why does rain not fill the soil ? Have you ever seen water flow out of the ground ? Is there a spring near your home? If so, tell what it is like. Brooks often flow in dry seasons. Can you tell where the water comes from ? 15. Sources of Streams. The beginning of a brook or river is called its source. Many springs form at the foot of hills, and also in meadows. Many others bubble up in the bottoms of brooks, ponds, rivers and lakes. Ponds and lakes store up water, and supply it to brooks and rivers long after the rain is over. Do you see the large brook or river that flows from under the ice? The tops of many mountains are covered with ice and snow all the year. Many streams are formed by the melting ice and snow. 7 g SYSTEMS: AND: BASINS. ee Should you like to see hot water spout out of the ground? . It often shoots up as high as a very tall tree. There must be a very hot place in the earth under the geyser. From some springs there is a gentle flow of warm or hot water. Find the picture of the hot springs. made many pretty basins ? 16. Where Brooks Flow. Why do brooks flow in creoked lines ? In what direction does every stream flow ? Why are some brooks swift and others slow ? Why is a brook wider in some plage than in others ? What are the uses of brooks and eae ue 17. Systems and Basins. Streams often flow from many small valleys into a large valley. All the streams that meet in one valley form a system. A river system includes the main river of the valley, and all the rills, brooks and rivers that flow into the main one. All the land that sends water to a brook A Divide. Do you not think that shee have : forms the basin of the brook. A basin is made of slopes. Every stream is in a basin.