of Aymara five years or older, 162,175 said they did

not speak Spanish when asked if they did and that 96%

of these were in Puno (Repablica del PerG 1966:2-3).
Other official Peruvian sources differentiate coordinate
and subordinate bilingualism but the application of these
terms to actual cases varies. Redefinitions and refine-
ments of the terms monolingual and bilingual are needed
for the Andean situation, which includes such complexi-
ties as those of northern Potosi (1-1.1). Some persons
encountered in this research who were designated by
other Aymara speakers as monolingual appeared to have a
receptive if not productive competence in the Spanish
lanauage within a narrowly defined set of topics. Other
persons who on first acquaintance appeared to be fairly
fluent in Spanish later proved to have many difficulties
in comprehension and production. The role of cultural
and social factors must also be taken into account.

(See the remarks for bilingualism of sources, 1-3.3.
Present-day Aymara dialects that show heavy Spanish

influence are discussed in Chapter 9.)
1-2 History
1-2.1 Language family

Aymara is a member of the Jaqi language family

(Hardman 1975) which Torero (1972b) prefers to call the