Sometimes the male cooperators carried out trial work themselves. Other times their wives and female relatives assisted or did much of the work, sometimes producing errors in the way the trials were conducted. (This is probably because these women had not received the instruction and the male cooperators did not pass on the information.) In order to understand the problem, the WIADP asked trial cooperators who actually carried out each operation. The information obtained showed that wives and female relatives performed many of these tasks (Spring's notes from Kawinga and Phalombe FSR surveys).
The WIADP participated in several attempts to remedy the way in which surveys and trials were conducted. Concerning surveys, the WIADP conducted its own FSRIE surveys in three different regions of the country and worked with a USAID and a German team in Central Region (Spring, 1982; Spring, Kayuni and Smith, 1982; Spring, Smith and Kayuni, 1983a). Each time, there was a tendency on the part of the male extension workers who accompanied the teams to direct the teams to the better male farmers. In order to remedy the situation, it was explained to staff and team members that it was necessary to examine a range of environments, family types, and economic situations. Occasionally, it was necessary to refuse to meet only with the better male farmers. The WIADP prepared guide sheets that detailed the types of households and families that needed to be considered and requested that the following categories of farmers be sampled by teams doing the diagnostic survey:
1. A diversity of economic situations: low resources farmers,
including those who must work for others; subsistence farmers;
and wealthy farmers who grow cash crops and hire laborers.
2. A diversity of household types: families composed of (a) a
wife, husband, and children; (b) a husband, two or more wives,
and children; (c) a married woman with children, but the husband
was away; and (d) an unmarried woman and children.
3. A diversity of ages and life cycle situations: older people,
recent widows, and widowers; young couples just beginning
to farm; long time farmers; and women recently divorced or
on their own (Spring, 1982).
It also helped to have women researchers and extensionists on the teams, and subsequently it became fairly standard practice to have women on FSR/E teams. (The new program of FSR/E using adaptive research teams in the country specifies that there should be a woman on each team (Kay Pasley: personal communication).
Concerning trials, the WIADP conducted its own and worked with another USAID project on its trials (Hansen, 1986). Two examples of trials that included female farmers illustrate the problems in obtaining women cooperators as well as the lessons learned by considering women. The first example concerns trials held in a low resource area, where there is land shortage and a drought-prone climate, and where 37% of the households were headed by women. Average holding size was one hectare, but more than 60% of the households cultivated less than a hectare and almost a third cultivated less than half a hectare. Male out-migration was pronounced and women and children remained to work family farms. The trials consisted of comparing an improved cultivar with a local variety with "a simple nonreplicated 2 x 2 factorial arrangement