I MARKET celebrate cultural/religious events (De Boer and Veisblat 1978).
A The soils are generally marginal in fertility and on moderate to
I I steep slopes; thereby serious problems often arise with erosion.
Wildlife from forest fallow areas often prey on crops or even on fuel the small animals.
The system has several assets. The usually low population
cons. mt. HUSEOLDpressures permit long-term fallow. Diversified cropping is
already widely practiced; therefore, soil conservation procedures laborr should be acceptable. The constant shortage of labor slows
foo expansion of cultivation and thereby risks of erosion. on the
ritua foodother hand, the system has se ious liabilities, such as po~r
cons mataccess to markets and inadequate power for tillage or transport.
cons. ma. riualIncreasing land pressure due to population growth and expansion
of permanent ranching and timber harvest are causing the fallow COSANIMALS system to break down in many areas (Harwood 1978).
feed The opportunities for positive change are good. Returns
cmlxswine from crops and environmental stability could be improved through
mitrspoultry the use of perennial crops, bunded paddies, terraces, and planned
goats grazing areas in order that buffalo or cattle could be in-----sheep corporated into the system. Use of large ruminants would improve
the opportunity to accumulate capital. These changes would require development of technology and guidance. To achieve these fertility ofamfeed steps will necessitate a shift in attitude on the part of
policymakers, most of whom see the swidden system as it is now wild-animal offamflo(lnte) practiced as wasteful and making little contribution to agrirpedationm alo logtem cultural production.
Humid-upland System
The upland system (Figure 2.4) is widespread over the humid
tropics of Asia. There are well-developed farmsteads with
permanent, cleared fields but with no bunding and no irrigation. Figure 2.3. Swidden farming system in Asiarshifting agriculture The major crops are rice, maize, cassava, wheat, kenaf, sorghum,
low integration of crops and animals (animals free- and beans. Most households have small numbers of several species
roving or tethered) of animals, with swine and poultry dominating. Following these
in popularity are cattle and buffalo. Sheep and goat numbers are normally low. Where tall-growing crops (maize and sorghum) are centers around dispersed settlements employing slash-and-burn cultivated, cattle are kept to utilize crop residues. In rice
technology. A family or household cultivates approximately 2 areas buffalo predominate. Frequently, one or two buffalo or
hectares per year using manual labor, The main implements are cattle are kept for use in land preparation and to provide
hoe and dibble stick. Plant residues are usually left in the transport for crops, crop residues, and to some extent members of
fields for mulch. Each family has pigs and chickens without the family. Swine are tethered or penned, and cattle or buffalo
controlled management (scavengers); thus there is no systematic are tethered at night in order that manures can be collected and
recycling of nutrients, although some manure may be retrieved for to avoid theft. The manures are frequently composted with crop
certain crops around the household. After two to four years of residues. Poultry are usually free-roving.
cropping, there follows an extended fallow period. There is Fuel is not yet a severe problen in many of the humid-upland
little animal/crop competition since the fields are ordinarily systems but is becoming increasingly so as more and more forests
several hundred meters or more from the village. Fuel is a are cleared.
relatively minor problem in this system because of low population The farm infrastructure' is variable, developed for some
densities and the presence of forest or fallow. areas but extremely limited for others. Land tenure and social
Farm infrastructure is low, i.e., few capital inputs and services are also variable. many upland areas are distant from
services are rendered from outside the village. Mutual as- markets.
sistance within the village is the main source of aid. There is The land ranges from rolling hills to steep slopes. The
no systematic plan for sale of livestock nor identifiable pattern soils have moderate fertility, and in general drainage is good.
of service use for animals. Most sales of animals are for Erosion hazards are classed as moderate. The rainfall is seaemrgency needs, with the greater proportion being consumed to sonal and erratic within the rainy season, thus periods of
40 41