BIOTECHNOLOGY: THE UNIVERSITY PERSPECTIVE


full disclosure of research results through publication. In addition, new
findings are often quickly transmitted among colleagues locally and more
widely through presentations at seminars, symposia, and national meet-
ings. Publications are vital. They are the principal means of evaluating a
scientist's worth and are decisive in appointments, promotions, the award-
ing of tenure, and competitive grants.
 Many universities forbid classified, secret, or proprietary research. Even
those that do not, however, take great care to separate the normal research
activities of the university from those activities that are restricted. In fact,
it is almost impossible to mix graduate education and proprietary research.
The reason is simple-graduate students must publish their theses.


PATENTS AND LICENSES

 In what would seem to be a contradictory posture, most universities and
most research sponsors encourage patenting and licensing of inventions
that have commercial potential. Commonly, the university bears the cost
of patenting and the inventor receives a percentage of royalties and/or
income from licenses.
 Universities differ substantially on the patent and licensing arrange-
ments they will make with a research sponsor. Federal sponsors expect the
university to patent useful inventions and to license them as appropriate
(exclusive licenses are permitted). With private sponsors a university may
arrange to transfer patent rights or to give exclusive licenses with or with-
out royalties. Most research universities are anxious to ensure that inven-
tions are patented and licensed and by that means enhance institutional
income. No one objects to a faculty member or institution becoming rich.
 The paradox of non-profit organizations pursuing inventions for profit is
only made rational if it is understood that patents are not pursued as an
end in themselves. They are seen as the inevitable and occasional conse-
quences of basic research aimed at understanding the basic natural laws
and their application in the sciences and engineering.
 The philosophic conflict is greater in land-grant universities where the
research mission extends to development, demonstration, and even deliv-
ery of a product or service; in most cases without the benefit of patent or
license, although there have been some notable exceptions (warfarin and
vitamin D).