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VISIT FAS ON THE WEB: www.fasweb.org THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST Volume 69 Number 4 December 2016 TABLE OF CONTENTS FROM THE EDITORS 162 ARTICLES A RARE GALENA ARTIFACT FROM PALMETTO Mounpb (8LV2), LEvy County, FLORIDA 164 MarK C. Donor, GEORGE D. KAMENOV, TIFFANY E. BiraAkis, MaTTrHEw D. WOODSIDE VERO BEACH, FLORIDA ENGRAVED DEPICTION OF A MAMMOTH: THE ENGRAVING’S ANTIQUITY QUESTIONED 174 Louts D. TESAR PALEO-INDIAN THROUGH PROTOHISTORIC ON ST. VICENT ISLAND, NORTHWEST FLORIDA 184 NANCY Marie WHITE AND ELICIA KIMBLE 2016 FIELD SCHOOL SUMMARIES 206 IN MEMORIAM 216 ABOUT THE AUTHORS Loe Published by the FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY, INC. ISSN 0015-3893 An Endowment to Support production of 7he Florida Anthropologist, the scholarly journal published quarterly by the Florida Anthropological Society since 1947 Donations are being accepted from individuals, corporations, and foundations. Inquiries and gifts can be directed to: Jeffrey P. Du Vernay, Ph.D. Center for Virtualization and Applied Spatial Technologies University of South Florida 4202 East Fowler Avenue, NES107 Tampa, FL 33620 The Florida Anthropological Society is a non-profit organization under section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Contributions are tax-deductible as provided by section 170 of the code. FROM THE EDITORS Welcome to the December 2016 issue of The Florida Anthropologist. This final issue of the year includes three articles, field school summaries for a number of the archaeological field schools completed throughout Florida this year, and an In Memoriam. The first article of the issue is co-authored by Mark Donop, George Kamenov, Tiffany Birakis, and Matthew Woodside, and is focused on a rare Galena artifact recovered from Palmetto Mound, a mortuary mound site located in coastal Levy County near Cedar Key. The artifact was recovered by avocational archaeologist Montague Tallant in the 1930s and is part of the larger Tallant Collection curated by the South Florida Museum of Bradenton. With this paper, Donop and colleagues present a description of the physical characteristics of the artifact and share the results of their multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (MC-ICP- MS) testing on the piece completed to discern its lead isotopic composition and source. The authors indicate that the results of this testing show the galena likely originates from a known (and previously isotopically investigated) galena source in Southeastern Missouri. With these data in mind, they briefly discuss the topic of precolumbian exchange and how their results compare with other sourced galena artifacts found in Florida. Additionally, the authors consider the potential health hazards of ritual uses of galena and frame this discussion within a wider, cross-cultural context. The next article is written by Louis Tesar. The focus of Tesar’s paper is the Vero Beach mammoth engraving featured on a fossilized bone fragment found by an amateur collector near the Old Vero site in Indian River County. The engraving was first analyzed and reported by Barbara Purdy and colleagues, including in the December 2012 issue of The Florida Anthropologist. With this paper, Tesar directly calls into question their conclusion that the mammoth engraving is of a Paleoindian period origin and not a modern day creation. Tesar bases this questioning along various fronts including through an examination of a cast made of the bone fragment (the original reportedly was sold on the antiquities market), a comparative analysis with other engraved bone artifacts recovered in Florida and through replicative engraving experiments he completed himself. Tesar closes by suggesting that his review of the mammoth engraving also is instructive to issues related to the antiquities market and the threat of commercial collectors to the State’s archaeological resources. The additional financial cost associated with printing Louis’ article in color was paid for by the author. The third article of the issue is co-authored by Nancy White and Elicia Kimble, and provides a thorough synthesis of their recent archaeological investigations on St. Vincent Island, situated directly southwest of the mouth of the Apalachicola River in northwest Florida. These investigations included both field survey and testing as well as collections-based research and documentation. Using the data derived from their efforts, White and Kimble provide a comprehensive description and summary of human occupation and activity on the Island, which they indicate spanned from Paleoindian through historic times. Additionally, they discuss some of the public archaeology aspects of their project, including coordinating with Federal land management and local volunteers to help mitigate illegal artifact collecting on the island and better report new archaeological finds. Next, the issue features multiple summaries of archaeological field schools completed this year in Florida. Our solicitation for summaries netted a total of five, including summaries from the University of North Florida, University of Florida, University of South Florida and two from the University of West Florida. We thank the authors of these summaries for taking the time to write and submit them to the journal. Finally, the issue closes with an Jn Memoriam for David Phelps, archaeologist and former editor of The Florida Anthropologist. We extend a sincere thank you to Dorothy Block for submitting this Jn Memoriam, and she wishes to extend thanks and appreciation to George Luer for his help and encouragement while she wrote and assembled this piece. We hope you enjoy the issue. Jeffrey P. Du Vernay Julie Rogers Saccente VOL. 69 (4) THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST DECEMBER 2016 A RARE GALENA ARTIFACT FROM PALMETTO MOUND (8LV2), LEVY COUNTY, FLORIDA Mark C. Donor!, GeorGeE D. KAMENOV’, TIFFANY E. Brrakis*?, MATTHEW D. WoopsiDE? 'Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611 ?Department of Geological Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611 3South Florida Museum, Bradenton, Florida 34205 Introduction: Galena Artifact from Palmetto Mound (8SLV2) A rare, recently rediscovered galena (lead sulphide) artifact collected in the 1930s from the Palmetto Mound (8LV2) precolumbian (ca. 2700-700 years before present [BP]) mortuary complex north of Cedar Key is exceptional for its large size and distant provenance (Figure 1). Concentrations of precolumbian galena artifacts are scarce in Florida and usually weigh between 0.1-550 g (Austin and Matusik 2014:6-7). Most research has focused on the origins and exchange patterns of galena. Galena artifacts are most often found at mortuary sites like Palmetto Mound but their role in ritual practice remains largely unknown (Austin and Matusik 2014:5; Walthall 1981:3-4). The goal of this research was to determine the physical properties of the Palmetto Mound galena artifact, use multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (MC-ICP-MS) to determine its lead (Pb) isotopic composition and origin, and discuss its possible uses as a potentially hazardous ritual object. Galena and Galena Artifacts in Florida Native Americans in the precolumbian period used the mineral galena (PbS) to make a variety of objects. Galena is cubic, lead-grey with a metallic luster and has a specific gravity of 7.4-7.6 and a Mohs scale of hardness of 2.5 (Allaby 2013:235) (Figure 2). The mineral is widely distributed in hydrothermal veins and syngenetic exhalative deposits and as replacement in limestone and dolomite rocks and is often found associated with sphalerite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, barite, quartz, fluorite, and calcite. Galena is the primary ore of lead. In the Eastern and Central United States, major sources of galena are found in the Mississippi River Valley states of Arkansas, Oklahoma, Missouri, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, and Wisconsin and minor sources in Tennessee and Kentucky and along the Appalachians from Virginia to Alabama (Ghosh 2008:78-79). Missouri is the top producer of galena and lead in the United States, the latter primarily used in lead-acid batteries. Galena from precolumbian contexts in Florida is relatively rare. Galena artifacts have been found as raw material, pendants or plummets, beads, powder, and bird effigies. At least 54 galena artifacts have been recovered from precolumbian archaeological sites in Florida with most associated with Woodland Period (ca. 2500-1000 BP) burial mounds (Austin and Matusik 2014:3-5). A galena artifact from “Cedar Key” in “Levi Co., FL” was mentioned but not analyzed in a study by the Illinois State Museum (Walthall 1981:48). Fifteen galena artifacts from nine sites in Florida have been analyzed and sourced (see Figure 1, Table 1). The provenance of all of the artifacts except one was determined by comparing their lead isotope ratios to those of naturally occurring deposits using conventional solid source mass spectrometry and solid source thermal ionization mass spectrometry (Austin et al. 2000:125; Farquhar and Fletcher 1980; Ghosh 2008:84). The source of the galena artifact from the McKeithen site was based on trace elements determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (Milanich et al. 1984:62; Walthall 1981:33, 54). All of the analyzed artifacts found in Florida from the Early to Middle Woodland Period (ca. 2500-1500 BP), Middle Woodland Period (ca. 2200-1500 BP), and Mississippian Period (ca. 1000-500 BP) are from Central Missouri (CM) or Southeastern Missouri (SEM) geological sources (Austin et al. 2000:126-127; Ghosh 2008:81,86). Palmetto Mound (8LV2) The Palmetto Mound is a major precolumbian mortuary mound on a small island north of Cedar Key in Levy County on the north peninsular Gulf Coast 400-500 m directly west of the monumental Shell Mound (8LV42) (Sassaman et al. 2013, 2015) (see Figure 1). A shovel test pit survey of the island indicated that it lacked evidence of domestic activity and was dedicated to mortuary activity at the mound (Figure 3) (Donop 2015:106-107). Ceramics in donated private collections indicate that this multicomponent sand and shell burial mound was used primarily during the Weeden Island Period (ca. 1650-1000 BP). However, accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) assays obtained from recent fieldwork conducted by the Laboratory of Southeastern Archaeology (LSA) at the University of Florida (UF) and samples from the Florida Museum of Natural History (FLMNH) indicate it may have been used from 2765-675 cal BP (Donop 2015:115). Evidence indicates that hundreds of burials and approximately one thousand ceramic vessels were interred in the mound, including rare, nonlocal anthropomorphic and zoomorphic effigy vessels (Donop et al. 2016). Palmetto Mound has been nearly destroyed by private collectors and archaeologists over the last 150 years, and it is now protected by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service as part of the Lower Suwannee National Wildlife Refuge. Artifacts made of exotic materials such as greenstone, copper, and galena have been found at the site, VoL. 69 (4) THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST DECEMBER 2016 165 THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST 2016 69 (4) Figure 1. Map of locations mentioned in the article, courtesy of Neill J. Wallis. further indicating that a ritual network of religious objects connected Palmetto Mound to the north (Willey 1949:308). Tallant’s Galena (A7080) Avocational archaeologist Montague Tallant (1892-1962) collected a large galena artifact from Palmetto Mound that was misplaced until recently. Tallant excavated 169 archaeological sites in Florida and sold the majority of his artifact collection to the Chamber of Commerce of Bradenton in 1946 for $10,000 (Bennett 2011:56-71). This collection became the foundation for the South Florida Museum (SFM) in Bradenton. One of the burial sites that Tallant excavated in the 1930s, referred to as “Seven miles north of Cedar Keys (Lv-2)” by Gordon Willey, is undoubtedly what is now called Palmetto Mound on Hog Island based on its description, recent research at the Palmetto Mound (8LV2)§ 400 Kilometers mst oaol ar site, and Tallant’s journal (Donop 2015; Willey 1949:308). Willey wrote that a submound pit at Lv-2 contained burials and “stone celts, pendants, a copper gorget, and lump galena” (Willey 1949:308). Tallant’s journal indicates that “a 9’ # cube of galena” was found in a 2% feet deep, 80 feet-diameter submound pit capped with imported “very pink subsoil” likely infused with hematite that contained hundreds of relatively well-preserved human burials that extended from the southeast side of the original sand-and-shell mound (Tallant n.d.). Research conducted from 2014-2016 has improved our understanding of Palmetto Mound and led to the relocation of Tallant’s galena artifact. Recent permitted archaeological fieldwork indicates that the original mound was initiated in the Deptford Period ca. 2400 BP (Sassaman et al. 2016:13). The subsequent southeastern pit-mound construction probably dates to the Weeden Island Period as indicated by ceramic DONOP ET AL. Figure 2. Photograph of natural galena by Mark C. Donop courtesy of George D. Kamenov. types, although this has not yet been definitively determined. In 2016, research focused on Tallant’s collection from Palmetto Mound at the SFM led to the staff’s rediscovery of the galena artifact (catalog # A7080) in the geology area of the museum. Analysis The basic physical characteristics and provenance of Tallant’s galena artifact A7080 was measured using conventional methods, three-dimensional (3D) imaging, and lead (Pb) isotope analysis. It measured approximately 13 cm x 11 cm x 9 cm and weighed 9.45 Ibs or 4286.5 g which is nearly the same as Tallant’s measurement of 9.5 lbs. Artifact A7080 was 3D imaged using a NextEngine 3D Scanner at the SFM (Figure 4). It is somewhat rounded and exhibits a generalized, light-colored oxidation (Figure 5). A ground, oval GALENA ARTIFACT FROM PALMETTO Mounp (8LV2) 166 depression or facet 7.8 cm x 4.4 cm x 2.6 cm deep is the only clear evidence of anthropogenic use wear. Pb Isotope Analysis Multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (MC-ICP-MS) was used to measure the Pb isotopes from Tallant’s galena. An approximately 1 mm° sample of artifact A7080 was extracted from a small, damaged area of the artifact that had exposed fresh, silvery galena. The sample was dissolved in Optima-grade nitric acid (HNO,), spiked in thallium (TI) and introduced in a “Nu-Plasma” MC- ICP-MS. Pb ratios were measured using the Tl-normalization technique of Kamenov et al. (2004). The long-term NBS 981 lead standard values for the lab are as follows: 206Pb/204Pb = 16.937 (+0.004, 20), 207Pb/204Pb = 15.490 (+0.003, Zo), and 208Pb/204Pb = 36.695 (+0.009, 20). The isotope ratios from artifact A7080 are virtually identical to those from the Kingston Mine in the Washington County Barite District of Southeastern Missouri (Goldhaber et al. 1995:1883) (Table 2). Note that the reported Pb isotope data in Goldhaber et al. (1995) were obtained with older instrumentation with 0.1 percent analytical error on the Pb ratios. Therefore, artifact A7080 is indistinguishable from the Kingston galena. The mine is approximately 1200 kilometers in a straight line to Palmetto Mound although the actual route, presumably using the nearby (30-35 km) Mississippi River and other waterways, would have been considerably longer (see Figure 1). Discussion Size The literature suggests that artifact A7080 is the largest measured galena artifact found in a precolumbian context in Florida (Austin and Matusik 2014:5-8). Another large galena Table 1. Provenance of Precolumbian Galena Artifacts in Florida by Time Period Miami Circle Wassica R., Jefferson Co. Block Sterns Oak Knoll Fort Center Royce Mound McKeithen Lake Jackson Pineland Harley Means 4 | 3 l 1 | a 1 167 THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST artifact, a “mass of galena, considerably larger than a closed hand,” was recovered from the Nichols site (8WA3) but it was not weighed and its dimensions were not recorded (Moore 1902:281-282). Many galena artifacts were counted and loosely described but not weighed making it difficult to assess the size of artifact A7080 relative to other specimens in the Southeast. Palmetto Mound (8LV2) —— Contour = 25cm 2016 69 (4) Exchange This study supports the pattern that all analyzed precolumbian galena artifacts found in Florida originated from Missouri. The Southeastern Missouri provenance for artifact A7080 is very similar to the other nine artifacts that have been sourced. Although there are natural galena sources closer to Florida, the ones from Missouri are often exposed in STPD1 x STPD2 Tallant’s “submound pit” CaaS FS Ges aaa Ree 10 eee ial Figure 3. Topographic map of Palmetto Mound (8LV2) courtesy of Micah P. Monés including Montague Tallant’s “submound pit” area where artifact A7080 was found. DONOP ET AL. GALENA ARTIFACT FROM PALMETTO Mounp (8LV2) 168 veins and deposits that are more easily accessible (Austin et al. 2000:124; Austin and Matusik 2014:3; Walthall 1981:43). In the Washington County Barite District, barite and galena occurred in exposed fractured rock and in red clay where thousands of people operated productive small pit-mines with only hand tools in the early 1900s. Major exchange routes linked galena sources in Missouri with waterways that connected them to Florida. These routes have roots in the Late Archaic Period (ca. 5800-3200 BP) where galena was transported to the nearby Mississippi River and brought to places such as Poverty Point in Louisiana (Walthall 1981:37; Walthall 1982). These exchange systems Figure 4. Snapshot of 3D model of Tallant’s galena (A7080) courtesy of Tiffany E. Birakis. Figure 5. Photograph of the ground facet courtesy of Tiffany E. Birakis. were expanded during the Midwestern Hopewell Tradition (ca. 2200-1600 BP) of the Middle Woodland Period to include the Flint and Apalachicola Rivers in southern Georgia and northwest Florida (Austin et al. 2000:128; Walthall 1981:10- 11). The results of neutron activation analysis (NAA) recently conducted on samples of Weeden Island Period ceramic effigies recovered near artifact A7080 suggest that many of them originated to the north-northwest in the same Flint- Apalachicola region (Donop et al. 2016). Use Wear The ground facet on artifact A7080 indicates that it was used to produce galena powder. Ethnohistoric accounts of “black lead,” “something that looked like silver ore,” and “lead ore” indicate that ground galena was used as facial paint by Native Americans in the Southeast (Swanton 1946:243, 529-530). In the 1500s, the French obtained “bits of some type of ore” and “lead” from the Timucuan people of Florida (Hann 1996:37; Swanton 1922:348). Freshly ground galena gives off a silvery luster but it can also appear black, grey, or even white when oxidized. Cross-cultural Comparison (Kohl) The question has been posed whether the use of galena powder paint had insidious health consequences for a segment of some Native American societies (Walthall 1981:2-3). In the Southeast, there is some evidence that the bones of galena- using Middle Woodland Period Copena and Mississippian Period Moundville people contained significantly higher lead levels than populations that did not use the mineral (Thurmond 1975). Precolumbian galena use may have had a significant effect on the lead isotope levels of human remains used to determine their provenance. Research focused on modern Native American health concerns related to the use of galena could not be found. A robust body of data for ancient and modern galena- based facial paint from the Near East, Africa, and South Asia can be found in recent literature that may help to inform the use of galena-based facial paint in the precolumbian Southeast. A common dark eye cosmetic called koh/ also known as alkohi, al-kahal, surma, saoott, kajal, and tiro often contains galena. Kohl containers used in Egypt during the Middle to New Kingdom (ca. 4040-3070 BP) were found to contain galena and anglesite (oxidized galena) in the majority of the samples (Hardy et al. 2006; Hardy and Rollinson 2011). Thirty-three percent of modern kohl samples from Egypt, Qatar, Yemen, the United Arab Emirates, and Oman were found to contain Table 2. Lead Isotope Ratios from Tallant’s Galena A7080 Galena A7080 206Ph /2>4Pbh 207Ph /2>4Pbh 208Ph /2>4Pbh 208Ph /2Pbh 207Ph /2%Ph 2a.0 70] 15.965 41.123 1.8548 0.720097 169 ‘THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST galena as their main component (Hardy et al. 1998; Hardy et al. 2002; Hardy et al. 2006; Hardy et al. 2008). Kohl containing galena and other lead compounds are reported to have several positive effects. Kohl is used as a beauty enhancer and is believed to have a variety of beneficial effects that include the prevention and treatment of eye ailments, improving vision, preventing umbilical stump infections, protection from excessive sunlight, and increased production of antimicrobial nitric oxide (Mahmood et al. 2009; Mahmood et al. 2015). Kohl is also used for religious purposes and it is applied to children’s eyes and conjunctive tissue to counteract the “evil eye,” a curse believed to be prevalent in the Mediterranean, North Africa, Near East, and Latin America. The primary health concern regarding the use of galena- based kohl is lead exposure and poisoning. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported that blood lead levels (BLL) for adults should be limited to 10 ug/dL and 5 wg/dL for children ages 1-5 years (CDC 2012b, 2015:230). Although lead does not easily penetrate the skin, it can be absorbed through conjunctive eye tissue and particularly the gut. Lead poisoning can cause anemia, kidney problems, neurological damage, and other problems including death. The CDC has reported cases of infant and childhood lead poisoning with BLLs of 13 uwg/dL and 27 wg/dL caused by the use of tiro from Nigeria and kajal from Afghanistan respectively (CDC 2012a, 2013). In an unusual homicide case, an Egyptian woman’s blood was found to have a BLL of approximately 3341 wg/dL after she was killed with an omelet sandwich mixed with kohl (Mohamed et al. 2007). The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has banned folk medicines and cosmetics containing lead, including kohl (FDA 2003). Conclusions Tallant’s galena (catalog # A7080) was a large, exotic resource that was intentionally interred in Palmetto Mound despite the fact that it was a valuable consumable commodity. It could have been “killed” like so many of the mortuary ceramics at Palmetto Mound or made into many smaller finished objects such as plummets or beads but instead was used over an unknown period of time as a possible source of dangerously powerful ritual paint. Tallant’s galena probably traveled traditional routes of exchange established in the Late Archaic Period that were expanded in the Middle Woodland to include Florida. These exchange systems served to not only redistribute rare, exotic materials such as galena and copper but to maintain distant social relations and the exchange of ritual knowledge. The application of galena powder to the body without knowledge of its proper use would have been hazardous and potentially deadly. Tallant’s galena may have been a potent ritual object that was incorporated into the mound in an effort to empower it as a sacred, non-portable “bundle” that was accessed by ritual practitioners for mortuary purposes for many years (e.g. Nieves Zedefio 2008; Pauketat 2013). Perhaps shamans periodically exhumed the galena and used its powder to prepare themselves for important mortuary rituals. 2016 69 (4) Acknowledgements We would like to thank several institutions and persons for their assistance with our research. Thanks to the staff at The South Florida Museum for their help locating and studying Tallant’s galena artifact. Thanks to Richard Kanaski of the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service for granting permission to Kenneth Sassaman and the personnel of the Laboratory of Southeastern Archaeology (LSA) and the students of the 2014 Lower Archaeological Field School to conduct fieldwork at Palmetto Mound (8LV2). Thanks to Neill Wallis at the Florida Museum of Natural History (FLMNH) for his comments and map. References Cited Allaby, Michael 2013. ~—-A Dictionary of Geology and Earth Sciences. Oxford University Press, University of Oxford. Austin, Robert J., and Angela Matusik 2014. Galena Distribution in Florida: Implications for Prehistoric Trade. Paper presented at the 66th Annual Meeting of the Florida Anthropological Society, Punta Gorda. Austin, Robert J., Ronald M. Farquhar, and Karen J. Walker 2000 ‘Isotope Analysis of Galena from Prehistoric Archaeological Sites in South Florida. Florida Scientist 63(2):123-131. Bennett, Thomas P. 2011 The Legacy: South Florida Museum. University Press of America, Inc. Lanham. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) 2012a Infant Lead Poisoning Associated with Use of Tiro, an Eye Cosmetic from Nigeria — Boston, Massachusetts, 2011. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) 61(30):574-576. 2012b New Blood Lead Level Information. 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Hardy, Andrew D., Ragini Vaishnav, Samira Al-Kharusi, Hector H. Sutherland, and Michael A. Worthing 1998 Composition of eye cosmetics (kohls) used in Oman. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 60:223-234. Hardy, Andrew D., Hector H. Sutherland, and Ragini Vaishnav 2002 A study of the composition of some eye cosmetics (kohls) used in the United Arab Emirates. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 80:137-145. Hardy, Andrew D., Richard J. Walton, Ragini Vaishnay, Kathryn A. Myers, Mathew R. Power, and Duncan Pirrie 2006 Egyptian eye cosmetics (Kohls): Past and present. In Physical Techniques in the Study of Art, Archaeology and Cultural Heritage, edited by Dudley Creagh and David Bradley, Vol. 1, pp. 173- 203. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam. Hardy, Andrew D., Alexander J. Farrant, Gavyn K. Rollinson, Peter Barss, and Ragini Vaishnav 2008 = A study of the chemical composition of traditional eye cosmetics (“kohls”) used in Qatar and Yemen. Journal of Cosmetic Science 59:399-418. Hardy, Andrew D., and Gavyn K. 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New World Archaeological Record. Academic Press, Inc., Orlando. Mohamed, Khaled M., Gafer R. Ahmed, Nady S. Aly, and Abd-Elmonem M. Abd-Elmoty 2007 Determination of Lead in Biological Specimens from a Homicidal Poisoning Case with Kohl (Lead Sulphide). Paper presented at The Egyptian Society of Environmental Toxicology Conference, Seattle. Moore, C.B. 1902 Certain aboriginal remains of the northwest Florida coast, Part II. Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 12:127-355. Nieves Zedefio, Maria 2008 ~ Bundled Worlds: The Roles and Interactions of Complex Objects from the North American Plains. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 15(4):362-378. Pauketat, Timothy R. 2013. An Archaeology of the Cosmos: Rethinking Agency and Religion in Ancient America. Routledge, New York. 171 THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST Sassaman, Kenneth E., Andrea Palmiotto, Ginessa J. Mahar, Micah P. Mones, and Paulette S. McFadden 2013. 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Swanton, John R. 1922 Early History of the Creek Indians and Their Neighbors. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin, No. 73. Government Printing Office. Washington D.C: 1946 The Indians of the Southeastern United States. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin, No. 137. Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C. Tallant, Montague n.d. Unpublished journal. Copy on file, South Florida Museum, Bradenton. Thurmond, Anita 1975 Lead Levels in Prehistoric Alabama Indians. Unpublished M.A. thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Alabama, Birmingham. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 2003 Kohl, Kajal, Al-Kahal, or Surma: By Any Name, Beware of Lead Poisoning. Electronic document, http://www. fda.gov/Cosmetics/ProductsIngredients/ Products/ucm137250.htm, accessed June 1, 2016. Walthall, John A. 1981 Galena and Aboriginal Trade in Eastern North America. Scientific Papers, Vol. XVII, Illinois State Museum, Springfield. 2016 69 (4) 1982 Galena Analysis and Poverty Point Trade. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 7(1):133-148. Willey, Gordon R. 1949 = Archeology of the Florida Gulf Coast. University Press of Florida, Gainesville X VERO BEACH, FLORIDA ENGRAVED DEPICTION OF A MAMMOTH: THE ENGRAVING’S ANTIQUITY QUESTIONED Louts D. TESAR Archaeologist (retired), 788 Winding Creek Road, Quincy, Florida 32351 Introduction Purdy et al. (2011) published the result of their analysis of an engraved proboscidean (i.e., mammoth) image on a mineralized bone reportedly found near the Old Vero site (8IR9) in Vero Beach, Florida. They note the similarity of the engraving on the Vero bone to Old World Upper Paleolithic art styles and provide their reasons for concluding that it is not a forgery (Purdy et al. 2011:2912). They conclude that the drawing was made prior to the extinction of the mammoth and that it “likely represents one of the first verified Paleoindian representations of a proboscidean in the Western hemisphere” (Purdy et al. 2011:2913). On October 5, 2012, at an archaeological resources meeting in Monticello, Florida, I joined others in viewing a cast of a large fossil bone fragment with an engraved mammoth image that came from Vero Beach, Florida. The cast belonging to Andrew C. Hemmings was of the object reported by Purdy et al. (2011). When I prepared flatbed scanner Photoshop images of the cast' I noticed features in the enlarged images that seemed inconsistent with the description of the bone image and the associated conclusions of Purdy et al. (2011). The December 2012 issue of The Florida Anthropologist included an article by Dr. Purdy published partly in response to “verbal and written negative reactions to the original report of the mammoth bone/engraving investigations ... (Purdy et al. 2011)” (Purdy 2012:205). Purdy (2012:205- 214) provides a relatively complete presentation on the fossil bone fragment, describes aspects of the artifact’s surface features (including questions raised by Thomas W. Stafford, Jr. [March 8, 2010 personal correspondence]), reviews sources of mammoth images and previous investigations at site 8IR9, and provides information on the Tarzan Park tourist attraction that may have stimulated production of a replica mammoth engraving. Following that presentation Purdy (2012:215) concludes: “at this point, all (emphasis added) evidence suggests that the engraved bone from Vero Beach is an authentic specimen, which may be more than 13,000 years old.” As Purdy (2012:205) notes, “when science cannot furnish an indisputable conclusion, proxy evidence may reveal facts that confirm, support, question, or refute the scientific endeavor.” My intent is the same as that stated by Purdy et al. (2011:2910): “the only consideration here is the timing of the engraving—is it ancient or was it recently incised to mimic an example of prehistoric art?” In contrast VoL. 69 (4) THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST to the conclusion of Purdy et al. (2011) and Purdy (2012), I believe that it is the latter and my reasons and evidence follow. Background Information The Vero Beach mammoth engraving was reported by James Kennedy to have been found “in northern Vero Beach” (Purdy et al. 2011:2908), “near the Old Vero Site (8IR9)” (Purdy 2012:205). “A small sample was removed from an area away from the incising” and subjected to rare earth element analysis, which demonstrated that the fossil bone came from the site 8IR9 late Pleistocene bone deposits or those in proximity to that site (Purdy 2012:205; Purdy et al. 2011:2910, 2913). Thus, the object is not an example of European Paleolithic art brought to Florida. Purdy asserts: “It is not known if the bone from Vero Beach was engraved when the bone was still green (fresh) or already mineralized” (2012:206). How would that issue be resolved? Archaeologists have for the past hundred years excavated and studied bone and stone artifacts. For more than forty years those observations have been supplemented with the results of replication studies. For example, members of the Society of Primitive Technology are devoted to such activities and annually publish two issues of the Bulletin of Primitive Technology. Based on my more than forty years of archaeological research, both field investigations and artifact analysis, and participation in artifact replication activities, I offer the following explanation and examples. Fresh (green) bone generally has smooth surfaces and is also relatively hard—like the leg bones seen in butchered large animal meat. A brief article on “Bone Working Basics” by Steve Watts (1999:62-64) provides further detail on the characteristics and working of fresh bone. Cutting, scraping and engraving fresh bone leaves distinctive tool marks with crisp edges. Fresh bone rapidly loses its elasticity when it is exposed to sunlight and other weathering conditions. Figure 1 depicts a recent (late twentieth to twenty-first century) carved fresh bone artifact, possibly a fertility fetish, in which a drill or Dremel bit was used to complete the cut lines. In addition to the rotary marks, please note the smooth, unspalled edges of the cut grooves. The bone surface also shows abrasive scratch marks, possibly from use of coarse sand paper or a wire brush and the object appears to have been discolored from partial burning. It was found among leaves and surface debris from collapse of an excavation unit wall at the Blueberry site (8HG678). It was among several artifacts DECEMBER 2016 175 THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST 2016 69 (4) Figure 1. Carved fresh bone figurine, a modern fertility fetish (?), found at site 8HG678. Note the crisp cut edges and characteristic rotating bit divot marks. Rotated scanned images and enlargements prepared by Louis D. Tesar for Anne Reynolds and used here with her permission. from the site prepared as rotated scanned images for Anne Reynolds and is used here with her permission. Figure 2 depicts a Native American artifact made of fresh bone that was collected at the Tick Island shell midden in the St. Johns River valley, Volusia County, Florida (see Otto and Bullen 1978). The bone was cut and its surface ground to a flat-based spatula shape. Grinding in the basal joint area exposed interior marrow. The rectilinear engraved line pattern cuts to the marrow surface in some areas giving the bottom of the groove in such areas a somewhat pitted appearance. Triangular-shaped cut gouges along the outer edges of some cut lines complete the design. Note the absence of spalling along the crisp engraved line and gouge edges. The saturated shell environment preserved the bone while imparting only a minor water stain. Figure 3 also depicts a Native American artifact made of fresh bone that was engraved, cut and smoothed, probably during the Middle or Late Archaic Period. It was collected from the eroded bottom of the Wacissa River and listed and photographically depicted in the collector’s Isolated Finds Form report (Florida Master Site File IF report # 681)°. It was recently donated by the collector to the Florida Division of Historical Resources (BAR accession 16.93). It has a black pyrolusite (Mn0’) patinated surface color, is partially mineralized as a result of submerged deposition in calcitic silts, and has only minor surface degrading in the decorated area; although, its spatula shaped portion was broken. Note the characteristic grooved cut marks left from use of stone tools. Also note the crisp unspalled edges of the cut marks. In contrast to fresh bone, bone that has been left exposed on the ground surface or buried in well-drained acidic sandy soil degrades, becomes increasingly chalk-like, and develops a brittle, friable surface. Incising or engraving the surface of such weathered bone consistently results in spalling along the cut edge margins. Figure 4 depicts a portion of an engraved bone artifact that is a forgery made using partially degraded bone. This forgery was allegedly found at an upland Marion County, Florida site. Note the partially degraded bone surface and the spalling along the brittle edges of the cut lines and the rough-edged pitted series resulting from engraving a variable density surface, identified in the figure by numbers 1 and 2, respectively. Such pseudo-rotary like pitting is similar in appearance to but distinct from that produced by a drill bit or Dremel tool (e.g., compare it with the Figure | image). Brittle surface characteristics also are common on partially mineralized bone from Florida’s rivers and fossil bone deposits. For comparative purposes I prepared a series of engraved copies of the mammoth image on an unprovenienced partially mineralized, dark brown pyrolusite (Mn0”’) patinated, large Pleistocene animal bone fragment from a North Florida karst river. I used different tools to prepare each image. Most of my engraved mammoth images in this replication study breach the dark mineral surface deposit and reveal a burnt umber colored underlying layer. That breach demonstrates the engravings post-date the pyrolusite patina. Figure 2. Engraved fresh bone pin from the Tick Island site. Scanned rotated images of this artifact in E. Moore’s collection were prepared by Louis D. Tesar and the cropped image element and enlargement are used here with Mr. Moore’s permission. Louis D. TESAR VERO BEACH, FLORIDA ENGRAVED DEPICTION OF A MAMMOTH: THE ENGRAVING’S ANTIQUITY QUESTIONED 176 Figure 3. Carved and engraved fresh bone prehistoric artifact with a black pyrolusite (Mn0’) patination from the Wacissa River on the eastern boundary of Northwest Florida. Rotated scanned photographic images were prepared by Louis D. Tesar and part of one image and an enlargement to show cut mark detail are used here with permission of the Florida Division of Historical Resources, Bureau of Archaeological Research (BAR accession 16.93). Louis D.Tesar scanned image Portion of engraved partly degraded bone artifact; a forgery allegedly found at a Marion County, Florida site. & . a a ‘ : Figure 4. Portion of engraved degraded bone artifact allegedly found in Marion County, Florida. Note the spalling (1) along the edge of the cut lines. Also note the rough-edged pseudo-rotary like pitted series (2) resulting from engraving a variable density surface. The artifact image was prepared by Louis D. Tesar and is used with owner permission. Also note that the light patina and exterior surface degrading are absent from the engraved cut mark surface, demonstrating that they post-date the surface weathering. Stone gravers, saws and shaves, shark teeth and other sharp-edged pointed animal teeth were used by Native Americans to carve and decorate bone artifacts. Those tools manifest characteristic cut marks, including V-shaped engraved/incised grooves, often with parallel striations created by the irregular stone or regular shark tooth edges. Use wear dulling of the tool cutting edge gradually results in the bottom of the cut grove becoming more rounded. Changing hardness and eroded surface irregularities affect the straightness of the cut line axis. The pattern is completed by repeatedly graving the same lines until the desired depth is achieved. Quartz crystal artifacts are found at Paleoindian sites in Georgia (Anderson et al. 1990:77-83) and elsewhere (Gramly 1990:24). While the raw material came from locations outside of Florida, quartz projectile points and hexagonal quartz crystal artifacts also have been found at Florida sites (Figure 177 THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST 2016 69 (4) 5 right). Figure 5 (left) depicts a mammoth image that I made using a hexagonal quartz crystal. Note the V-shaped groove formed by the pointed crystal tip and the spalling along the cut edge of the degraded surface material. Also note the rough-edged pitted series (top left enlarged detail) resulting from engraving a variable density surface. The pseudo-rotary like pitting is similar to but distinct from that produced by a drill bit or Dremel (see Figure 1; also see Figure 4 for another pseudo-rotary like pitting example). Figure 6 (left) depicts a mammoth image that I made using an expedient chert flake tool: a burinated graver. The graver is similar in form to those reported from Paleoindian sites (Gramly 1990:13) and gravers also occur at later sites. I dulled the lateral edges to facilitate safe hand-held use when I made the tool. Figure 6 (right) depicts a graver from the Paleoindian-Early Archaic component at site 8WA329 (Wakulla Springs Lodge). Note the scratched sides of the V-shaped cut grooves that resulted from the burinated flake edge scars. The irregular material density and surface qualities of the degraded bone made it difficult to repeatedly grave the same cut groove during manufacture of the image. Also note the brittle surface spalling of the degraded bone along the ‘a cut edges. As noted, fresh bone usually has uniform surface smoothness and density qualities that do not distort graver cut line repetition efforts and rarely results in spalled cut edges. Figure 7 depicts mammoth images that I made using needle tip-shaped (left) and pointed cone-shaped (right) diamond encrusted Dremel bits. The enlargements show the V-shaped grooves produced when the bits were used as hand- held gravers and the rounded rotary marked grooves produced with the bits mounted in the Dremel that are identified in the figure as numbers 1 and 2, respectively. The rotary groves are wider and smoother than expected as the socketed tool shafts had an off-centered vibration when in use. I did not take time to buy a replacement Dremel to correct the fabrication problem. I decided the results of the tool defect were useful to show rotary bit made U-shaped groove fabrication that obscures rotary divot marks, such as those depicted in Figure 1. Figure 8 depicts a fragment of an animal jaw that was engraved when the bone was fresh, as demonstrated by the uniform cut marks that lack edge spalling. The artifact subsequently surface degraded and became partially mineralized when it was inundated in a clear-water karst river system. It lacks the black to very dark brown pyrolusite (Mn07) BAR 74.01.193.16 BAR 14.52.242.02 8JA65 8JE337 test unit Gravers made from hexagonal crystal quartz BAR 15.33.18.01 Simpson PPK from Santa Fe River, Florida Figure 5. (Left) Mammoth image engraved using the pointed tip of a hexagonal quartz crystal. Enlargements show brittle edge spalling and pseudo-rotary like cut marks. (Right) Quartz crystal gravers and Paleoindian period Simpson PPK from Florida sites. Scanned images prepared by Louis D. Tesar. BAR artifact images used with Florida Division of Historical Resources, Bureau of Archaeological Research permission. Louis D. TESAR VERO BEACH, FLORIDA ENGRAVED DEPICTION OF A MAMMOTH: THE ENGRAVING’S ANTIQUITY QUESTIONED 178 >> urinated Chert BAR 08.30.14.01 Flake 8WA329 Pcie Burinated Graver; (Replica) ore blade with cortex, chert Figure 6. (Left) Mammoth image engraved using the burinated tip of an expedient chert flake tool. Enlargement depicts scratched sides of V-shaped cut grooves and brittle surface edge spalling of degraded bone. (Right) Burinated graver example from site 8WA329. Scanned images prepared by Louis D. Tesar and the 8WA3729 artifact image is used with Division of Historical Resources, Bureau of Archaeological Research permission. Needle Tip 7 ee eee A ae . : ee 3 | Pointed : 1s fe? Fes. «(Diamond i : : fae = Encrusted Diamond | Encrusted Dremel ewe pee fT vo — #&Dremel Used As A oe | pee eee, «(sed As A Graver (1) = te And As A Baas Dremel (2) Dremel (2) Figure 7. Mammoth images engraved using needle tip-shaped (Left) and pointed cone-shaped (Right) diamond encrusted Dremel bits as gravers and drill bits. Enlargement shows V-shaped graver grooves (1) and rounded rotary marked grooves (2). Images prepared by Louis D. Tesar. 179 THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST 2016 69 (4) BAR Catalog 15.56.116.006 Engraved Animal Jaw Fragment Figure 8. Engraved fresh animal jaw bone (fragment). Enlargement shows crisp engraved cut marks and subsequent uniform surface weathering. Image prepared by Louis D. Tesar and used with Florida Division of Historical Resources, Bureau of Archaeological Research permission. patination occurring on artifacts in many Florida River settings. The artifact (Catalog number 15.56.116.006) is in the collection managed by the Florida Department of State, Division of Historical Resources, Bureau of Archaeological Research. The examples shown above demonstrate the surface and cut mark characteristics of engraved fresh (green) bone, weathered bone, and partially mineralized weathered bone of various ages and from different settings. Their comparison assists in determining whether the Vero Beach bone was fresh or weathered when the mammoth image was engraved on its surface. The Vero Beach Mammoth Engraved Bone The engraved Vero Beach, Florida mineralized bone was sent to the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., where a mold and casts of it were made (Purdy 2012:205). A flexible mold formed on the surface of an object will have the same surface details, although in mirror image. Fabrication details of the Vero Beach mammoth engraving are revealed on a cast of the object made by Smithsonian Institution staff. Surface staining and a clear (transparent) sealant preservative were applied to the white-colored cast material to give it a more realistic river stained appearance. The sealant on the cast imparts a minuscule more rounded appearance to the cut lines than would be seen in the mold. Nonetheless, the casts reveal a wealth of visual information on the object’s surface features and the characteristics of the cut marks. The dimensions of the Vero Beach mammoth engraving are as follows: “The length of the design is ca. 7.5 cm (3 inches) from the top of the head to the tip of the tail; the height of the design is ca. 4.5 cm (1.75 inches) from the top of the head to the bottom of the right foreleg” (Purdy et al. 2011:2909). Figure 9 (top) depicts an image of the Smithsonian prepared cast given to Andrew C. Hemmings and Figure 9 (bottom) depicts enlargements of the engraved image to show decorative element details. Using an optical microscope, Purdy et al. (2011:2911) report the image reveals “the margins of the cut mark on the bone are smoothed and rounded and the floor of the cut mark shows the same coloration and environmental inclusions as the rest of the bone.” Purdy et al. (2011:2911) interpret widened cut edges as the result of subsequent surface weathering erosion, rather than edge spalling that occurred from engraving already brittle weathered bone. They conclude those features indicate the effect of natural weathering and that the engraving was not done recently. However, please compare Purdy et al. 2011:2909-2910 [Figures1b and Figure 3b, respectively] with this report Figures 4-7 and 9 for an alternative interpretation. They also fail to explain how the broken bone edges became battered and rounded without that weathering process affecting the more delicate, shallow engraving (see Purdy et al. 2011:2909 Figure la and this report Figure 9 top). And yet, providing alternative interpretive information Purdy (2012:206) cites March 8, 2010 personal correspondence from Thomas W. Stafford, Jr., in which he concludes that the bone has post-mortem grooves and lines likely caused by “root etching, fungal growth, in situ abrasion against other bones or harder objects in the sediments, damage and erosion during stream transport, and insect, snail, and other invertebrates using the bone as a source of nutrition or calcium;” and, also observes: “The lines making up the engraved image extend across the shallow grooves. Therefore, the engraving was done after the shallow groves formed.” Louts D. TESAR VeRO BEACH, FLORIDA ENGRAVED DEPICTION OF A MAMMOTH: THE ENGRAVING’S ANTIQUITY QUESTIONED 180 Modern Fabrication of the Vero Beach Mammoth Engraving Given the information provided above, I disagree with the Purdy et al. (2011:2912) assertion that Reflective Transformation Imaging “suggests that the engraving occurred before the bone broke and/or weathered.” The engraving clearly occurred long after the bone had broken and weathered, and I suspect after the mineralization process had begun. The question then is “when did the engraving occur?” Purdy et al. (2011:2911) write that scanning electron microscope imaging of an incision of the engraved tusk “supports the probability that ... the bottom of the incised line and the surrounding materials aged at the same time in the same environment.” While they meant the statement to be applied more broadly, I suggest that the following comments by Stafford indicate a more restricted time line application. Stafford, who inspected the object on March 5, 2010, notes: “The black to very dark brown pyrolusite (Mn0’) patination on the bone is extremely thin ... and is a distinct Figure 9. (top) View of exterior surface of the cast of the Vero Beach bone fragment with the mammoth engraving. (bottom Enlarged views of the engraved image to show degraded bone spalled cut mark edges (1), pseudo-rotary like cut marks (2), and one of few U-shaped cut grooves (3). Scanned images prepared by Louis D. Tesar and used with permission of Andrew C. Hemmings, owner of the cast. 181 THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST layer that exists on the bone surface;” that “such coatings require years to a few decades, not millennia, to form;” and concludes: “I feel that the pyrolusite is a twentieth century patination initiated by geochemical conditions caused by canal construction” (Purdy 2012:206-207 citing Stafford March 8, 2010 personal correspondence). It seems likely that canal construction at Vero Beach and subsequent land use excavation in the area exposed Pleistocene bone remains, one of which was collected and subsequently engraved. Considering that issue Purdy hypothesizes that if the engraving is modern then the bone and its subsequent modification likely occurred between 1910-1960 “based on the history of the Old Vero site” (2012:206). Purdy (2012:210-214) discusses Sellard’s 1915 and 1916 investigations at site 8IR9 and the Tarzan Park tourist attraction that operated from 1932 to about 1934 and featured Vero Pleistocene remains. Purdy (2012:212) acknowledges, “1934 to the twenty-first century furnishes sufficient time, as mentioned by Thomas W. Stafford, Jr., for the thin patina of pyrolusite to form on the surface of the incised bone if it was created for Tarzan Park and then discarded in the vicinity when the facility closed.” While Purdy (2012:206) considered and subsequently rejected fabrication of the engraving between 1910-1960, one of the anonymous reviewers (2016, Reviewer 2 Comments) of a draft version of this article wrote: “Frank Vento, staff Geologist on the Vero Project, contacted a mineralogist who indicated that in the proper wet conditions a thin coating of MnO?’ can form in as little as 2 days. Also, we recovered coins post 2000 in the overburden that are coated with this as well. It is entirely possible to fake the patina by just putting the carving in the ground on site for a short, necessarily wet, period of time.” Thus, is has been demonstrated that the engraving of the mammoth image on the mineralized bone could have occurred more recently, following which it could have been placed in the wet setting for it to acquire its thin pyrolusite patination coating. Conclusions I believe that I and, as Purdy (2012:205) notes, others have an honest difference of opinion with Purdy et al. (2011) and Purdy (2012) on the antiquity of the mammoth engraving. Purdy (2012:215) reports that the object was sold on the antiquities market and is unavailable for further study. The mold of the object, however, retains the surface details of the object and I hope that it and casts made from it will be available to others for study to determine whether I am correct or in error concerning my interpretation of the object’s surface features as they relate to its fabrication and antiquity. My review here also is intended to serve as a cautionary note lest similar “ancient art” be “found” and make its way into the antiquities market. Indeed, with respect to authentic artifacts that market has stimulated groups of commercial collectors and represents a growing threat to Florida’s archaeological resources. The threat includes a concerted effort to amend Florida’s historic preservation laws to 2016 69 (4) facilitate the commercial collection, buying and selling of artifacts from state-owned and —controlled lands, particularly sovereignty submerged land. Two bills submitted during the 2015 legislative session did not excluded items from human burial sites, thereby negating the present protective provisions of both Chapters 267 and 872, Florida Statutes, had they succeeded in becoming law. Acknowledgments I thank Dr. Andrew C. Hemmings for permitting me to prepare flatbed scanner photographic images of his cast of the Vero Beach bone with an engraved mammoth image and for granting permission to use the images in this and other presentations. I also thank the owners of the Florida artifacts who granted similar permission to prepare and use scanned images of the other artifacts depicted in this report. Further, I thank the Editors of this journal and the three reviewers of an earlier version of this article that suffered from excessive redundancies. The present version markedly benefited from their comments and suggestions. References Cited Anderson, David G., R. Gerald Ledbetter, and Lisa O’Steen 1990 Paleoindian Period Archaeology of Georgia. University of Georgia, Laboratory of Archaeology Series Report Number 28/Georgia Archaeological Research Design Paper No, 6, Athens. Gramly, Richard Michael 1990 Guide to the Paleo-Indian Artifacts of North America. Persimmon Press Monographs in Archaeology, Buffalo, New York. Otto, L. Jahn, and Ripley P. Bullen 1978 The Tick Island Site, St. Johns River, Florida. Florida Anthropological Society Publications 10. Purdy, Barbara A. 2012 The Mammoth Engraving from Vero Beach, Florida: Ancient or Recent? The Florida Anthropologist 65(4):205-217. Purdy, Barbara A., Kevin S. Jones, John J. Macholsky, Gerald Bourne, Richard C. Hulbert, Jr., Bruce J. MacFadden, Krista L. Church, Michael W. Warren, Thomas F. Jorstad, Dennis J. Stanford, Melvin J. Wachowiak, and Robert J. Speakman 2011 Earliest art in the Americas: incised image of a proboscidian on mineralized extinct animal bone from Vero Beach, Florida. Journal of Archaeological Science 38:2908-2913. Watts, Steve 1999 Bone Working Basics. In Primitive Technology: A Book of Earth Skills, edited by David Wescott, pp 62- 64, Society of Primitive Technology. Gibbs-Smith Publisher, Salt Lake City. Louis D. TESAR End Notes 1. The cast of the mineralized bone with an engraved mammoth image was one of several prepared at the Smithsonian Institution and was given to Andrew C. Hemmings without restrictions on its use (Andrew C. Hemmings personal communication with Louis D. Tesar, October 5, 2012). Dr. Hemmings gave me permission to prepare flatbed scanner Photoshop images of the cast. I scanned the entire cast (exterior and interior) at 600 dpi and specific decorated areas at 1200 dpi and 2400 dpi. Layering 1200 and 2400 dpi images on a 600 dpi background produces enlargements without loss of image quality. Copies of the scanned images were provided to Dr. Hemmings for his use, and I received his permission to likewise use them without restriction. They are incorporated in comparative artifact type files of thousands of scanned images of antiquities, primarily stone and ceramic, and recently fabricated objects that I have prepared and assembled since 2002. The scanned images permitted me to study in detail the same features on the object as those studied by Purdy et al. (2011). Also, I have used original scanned images that I made of objects with owner permission as they require no reprinting permission as would already published images. 2. The carved bone artifact from the Wacissa River was collected May 20, 2003 and reported in accordance with Isolated Finds (IF) Program procedures, before that program was terminated. It was listed and photographically depicted in the collector’s Isolated Finds Form report (Florida Master Site File IF report # 681) and ownership of it and the other reported artifact was subsequently conveyed to the collector in accordance with program procedures. As I worked in the same office complex, the collector brought the bone artifact to me to prepare scanned images as I had done with other collector artifacts. However, in recognition of its importance, on October 21, 2016 the collector donated the bone artifact to the Florida Division of Historical Resources and it has been accessioned as BAR 16.93. It is noted that the IF program was terminated when it became apparent that there was a widespread non-reporting problem; one documented in part by images of artifacts offered for sale on eBay. The problem centered on individuals collecting for commercial sale purposes, as they reportedly did not wish to chance the State exercising its option to retain ownership of important artifact examples. The problem grew as those individuals spread rumors that the State was keeping all high market value artifacts. In fact, during the existence of the IF program no artifacts were “taken” from finds reported by collectors; although, digital images and molds were made of some of them and subsequently some were donated to the State by the collectors. In fact all of the unreported artifacts collected from Florida rivers during and subsequent to the termination of the Isolated Finds program remain State property, since transfer of State title to the collector could only occur for those artifacts reported in accordance with IF program procedures. VERO BEACH, FLORIDA ENGRAVED DEPICTION OF A MAMMOTH: THE ENGRAVING’S ANTIQUITY QUESTIONED 182 Recreational divers collected thousands of artifacts and Pleistocene faunal remains from Florida’s rivers, particularly at springheads and along karst drainage systems. The advent of the self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA) markedly increased the capability of divers to explore underwater settings in their search for prehistoric and historic antiquities and vertebrate fossils in Florida’s shallow coastal waters and rivers. The collection activities began as and for the majority of divers continued as a hobbyist activity, but in recent decades have been subverted by growing numbers of divers engaged in collecting objects for their monetary value and sale to antiquities collectors. The lowered acidity of calcium carbonate laden and anaerobic soils in submerged sites have preserved fragile organic cultural remains generally absent in upland sites. Thus, submerged archaeological sites with stratigraphic integrity are recognized as being of exceptional cultural significance. Florida has more such sites than any other state. They are the state-owned sites identified for preservation and restricted professional archaeological investigation. They are also the sites most sought after by artifact collectors, especially those searching for items to sell on the antiquities market. In spite of the growing lure of the antiquities market, several long term hobbyist collectors have donated their collections or artifacts of particular interest and significance in those collections to publicly managed museums, anthropology departments, and/or to the Florida Division of Historical Resources, Bureau of Archaeological Research to assure their public display and professional analysis. The conscientious efforts of such collectors are encouraged and lauded. The stewardship of Florida’s cultural resources depends on the diligence of its citizens. PALEO-INDIAN THROUGH PROTOHISTORICONST. VINCENT ISLAND, NORTHWEST FLORIDA NANCY MARIE WHITE AND ELICIA KIMBLE Department of Anthropology, University of South Florida, 4202 East. Fowler Avenue, SOC 107, Tampa, FL 33620 E-mail: nmw@usf.edu, ekimble@usf.edu Recent archaeological research on St. Vincent Island, might be off the middle-west side of the north shore, under St. a National Wildlife Refuge (NWR) and northwest Florida’s Vincent Sound, just west of the Pickalene oyster bar. largest barrier island (Figures 1, 2), has documented an Historically, the island had a string of wealthy owners, extensive material record dating from Paleo-Indian through who used it mostly as a hunting preserve (Hornaday 1909), protohistoric times. Field survey, limited testing, and archival even importing exotic game animals; large Asian Sambar and collections research now permit a comprehensive deer remain today. In 1968 St. Vincent became one of over examination of the human habitation and long-term use of 500 refuges run by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, with the island. The data alter existing interpretations of settlement patterns and other reconstructions of past native life in this region for some time periods. Environmental Setting St. Wincent. 1s the “closest barrier island to the mainland in the Apalachicola delta region. Indian Pass, at its northwest end, named after the highly visible archaeological record on both sides of it, is only 500 m wide. At the southeast end, the island is separated from the west end of Little St. George Island by ” | Pe Wimico West Pass, which is less than 1 km ' | . wide. St. Vincent Sound, the arm of Apalachicola Bay that separates Bis HOERBR BEY the island from the mainland, is less than two meters deep in most places (Twichell et al. 2007). St. Vincent differs from the other barrier islands in that it is triangular and wide, not long and thin, 14 km | _. east-west at the north end, and a a | ae , “Pegi maximum 6 km north-south. Its ai as , oan ridge-and-swale topography has dune/beach ridges 1-2 meters high and ca. 30 meters apart (Campbell 1986). Over its 4000-year lifetime, more than 100 ridges formed during the late Holocene (Forrest 2007) as the island began to accrete (Campbell Gulf of Mexico 1986; Stapor and Tanner 1977). Fresh water accumulates in swales, ponds, and small creeks (Edmiston . 2008:40). A possible drowned spring delta region. Port St. Joe Figure 1. Location of St. Vincent Island in northwest Florida’s Apalachicola VOL. 69 (4) THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST DECEMBER 2016 185 THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST 2016 69 (4) Gulf of Mexico 2. St. Vincent Island: (top) map showing sites (prefix “8FR” omitted from site numbers), subsurface tests, and net- work of dirt roads; (bottom) LiDAR image showing elevation; darker shading indicates higher elevations of ridges, up to 2 m (adapted from White and Kimble 2016:Figure 4, by Jeff Du Vernay). many habitats managed for wildlife and the visiting public, and 80 miles of dirt roads (Davis and Mokray 2000). Most recreational use of the island is around the main entrance at the northwest point and the west side of the north shore. At the southeast tip are the standing early nineteenth-century house and maintenance structures. Prehistoric shell middens are constantly washing out of the north and east shores. St. Vincent could be one of the oldest barrier islands in Florida (Stapor and Tanner 1977). The east side of the north shore is the oldest segment, with three major east-southeast- trending ridges (now the lowest at <2 m high) formed in sequence. Sea level research in the Gulf of Mexico has WHITE AND KIMBLE St. VINCENT ISLAND ARCHAEOLOGY, NORTHWEST FLORIDA 186 centered on the dating and formation processes of St. Vincent’s beach ridges and involves much debate (Thomas 2011 has a good summary). The more recent work has archaeological corroboration (Balsillie and Donoghue 2004; Walker et al. 1995). The youngest ridges, on the western and southern sides, probably date to about 400-500 years ago (Donoghue 1991:77). Stapor and Tanner (1977:35) proposed that, since beach-ridge height is related to wave height, sea level must have been about 1.5 m lower than at present in order to form the oldest beach ridges that are now only one meter high. We collaborated with geologists Frank Stapor and Joe Donoghue to obtain new dates to address questions of sea-level fluctuations. The hypothesis that a sea-level high-stand of approximately .7 m above present occurred at some time between 1300 and 1000 years ago (Balsillie and Donoghue 2004; Donoghue and White 1995:655; Walker et al. 1995) is supported by our work (discussed below). Our new data suggest that the oldest archaeological materials from the island are Paleo-Indian projectile points, at ca. 13,000 years B.P., deposited by people living there during the Pleistocene when the area was not an island but well inland, and probably riverbank. Fiber-tempered pottery, the oldest ceramics in North America at about 4000+ B.P., observed eroding out of deep peat deposits on the north shore, may have been deposited as the island was forming. The prehistoric cultural evidence comprises an almost continuous shell-midden ridge or strata extending along the western portion of the north shore of the island (and probably once continuous along the eastern portion of the north shore until most washed away), and also about halfway down the east shore, and along the north shore of the Big Bayou inlet. Storms in the last three to five decades have washed away much of the archaeological deposits and have redeposited shell-midden material, sometimes making it hard to tell what is original midden and what is disturbed. Given their positions relative to winds, rain, and waves, St. Vincent and the other barrier formations are always extremely dynamic landforms. A single storm can rip off pieces from one area and redeposit them elsewhere; historic shoreline loss on Little St. George Island is estimated at between 0.2 and 4.3 m per year (Donoghue et al. 1990:6; Sankar 2015:xv, 113). Lately, however, storm regimes may have become even more intense (Joe Donoghue, personal communication, 2010). Figure 3 shows the appearance of the Pickalene Midden area (center west side of north shore) in the 1970s, recently damaged by a storm even then, but still showing 2 m of shell midden in the exposed bank. Our 2009 excavations, into the thickest portion of the St. Vincent 5 site (8FR364) near the place in the photo, about 40 m back from the shoreline, encountered only 1 m of shell midden, which thinned out moving northward toward the shore. Why recent storms are so much more destructive is unknown. We suspect human action, including that related to climate change, and think it is worth investigating why archaeological sites that have existed there for at least 1500 years are suddenly disappearing. Meanwhile, a major goal of our work has been simply to document what is still present, including what might have been salvaged by others. Figure 3. Shell midden deposits estimated to be 2 m thick, from Pickalene midden area, St. Vincent 5 and 6 sites (8FR364 and 365), in the 1970s; considerably less remains today (photo courtesy of Frank Stapor). Although the Gulf, Bay, and Sound waters were too saline to drink, they provided abundant aquatic species for past peoples to harvest. The inlet of Big Bayou cuts into the north shore of the island, expanding the available sheltered coastline for settlement and protection of watercraft. Besides seafood, terrestrial animals and birds are also abundant. St. Vincent Island has forests of pine, oak, palm, cypress wetlands, and a wide variety of other trees, as well as a large amount of brushy vegetation, such as rosemary and sea oats growing on the dunes (Johnson and Barbour 1990). Multiple habitat types identified on the island include wetlands, dunes with live oak and other trees, cabbage palm stands, and four different slash-pine communities. The broad spectrum of plant communities provides habitat for abundant animals, including 11 amphibian, 42 reptile, 39 fish, 277 bird, and 28 mammal species, even the occasional manatee during warm months (McCarthy 2004; U.S. Department of the Interior 2012). The island is an important stop-off point for neotropical migratory birds and a nesting place for loggerheads and other sea turtles. St. Vincent is said to have been the first place eagles nested in Florida as they recovered from the population crash caused by the insecticide DDT in the 1960s (Cerulean 2015:120). History of Investigation Recorded archaeology on St. Vincent Island began during the last half-century with Florida State University’s David Phelps. Probably responding to information from the refuge manager at the time, Phelps visited and excavated at a few sites, but never wrote a report. It is not known exactly where his excavations were, and site numbers he assigned were confusing. He took materials and records when he went to East Carolina University in 1970. Some were returned, and there are boxes of artifacts in the FSU collections labeled St. Vincent Island, but it was difficult to make sense of them as they had either no proveniences or confusing proveniences with contradictory labels. 187 THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST James Miller, John Griffin, and colleagues at Cultural Resources Management, Inc., Tallahassee, surveyed on St. Vincent Island in November 1978 in advance of proposed construction of refuge facilities, concentrating on a few areas during their nine fieldworker-days. They noted that the 14 sites known at that time were all shell middens discovered mostly by refuge personnel (Miller et al. 1980:2, 5). They assigned site numbers for the Florida Master Site File that corresponded as closely as possible with Phelps’s data. Accompanying them was geologist Frank W. Stapor, who had been at FSU and worked with Phelps in the late 1960s and early ‘70s. Stapor sought to reconstruct regional sea-level fluctuations using St. Vincent geological and archaeological data. Miller et al. (1980) revisited and/or summarized Phelps’s sites and recorded some new ones. Stapor and William F. Tanner (1977) studied past sea-level evidence observed within the stratification at the Paradise Point site, 8FR71, at the northeast tip of the island, on the oldest beach ridge, where shell midden layers lay over and under a stratum of gray clay deposited by what they considered to be a higher-than-present sea-level stand. The implication was that people came before and after that time, when it was dry land. Another coastal expert, geologist Joe Donoghue, continued this research (Balsillie and Donoghue 2004; Donoghue 1991). Luckily, we could coordinate our 2010 work at Paradise Point with that of these geologists. In 1981, Southeastern Wildlife Services (now Southeastern Archaeological Services, Inc.) of Athens, Georgia, conducted archaeological testing at Paradise Point. A human burial had just washed out, and detrimental erosion continued. The two- man field crew spent 10 autumn days mapping and digging 10 excavation units, recovering Fort Walton and Woodland materials, and documenting the gray clay layer as well (Braley1982). In April of 2004, more human skeletal materials were discovered on the island’s north shore near Pickalene Bar, near the St. Vincent 6 site, 8FR365, which has occupation ranging from Late Archaic through protohistoric. After some looting and illegal transport of bones, NWR staff recovered the remains. Following consultation with Native American tribal representatives, as required by federal regulations, Southeast Region NWR archaeologist Richard Kanaski excavated and reburied the remains at an undisclosed location. Current Research The University of South Florida (USF) comprehensive survey project was undertaken at the request of the local volunteer group, the Supporters of St. Vincent National Wildlife Refuge, who saw how federal refuge managers had struggled to deal with protecting the resources. With the USF archaeological field school in summer 2009, we surveyed the north and east shorelines, parts of the interior and remaining shorelines, and many kilometers of the dirt roads. We also shovel-tested to establish site boundaries and check interior areas with no known sites, and conducted test excavation at the St. Vincent 5 site, 8FR364. We returned in March 2010 for testing at Paradise Point, and did archival and collections 2016 69 (4) research for years at the Bureau of Archaeological Research in Tallahassee and the Florida Museum of Natural History in Gainesville. Standard field methods were employed: 50- cm? shovel tests at judgmentally-chosen locations; all soils screened through 4” mesh; waterscreening through 1/8” mesh at the test units, 1-liter soil samples for permanent curation and 9-liter soil samples from all levels processed by flotation (A fraction '4” [6.35 mm] screen; B fraction .034” [.86 mm] screen; C fraction .0016” [.29 mm] screen). Our coverage of the island interior was expanded with information from a geological testing project (Forrest 2007) that had involved extensive machine trenching. The public archaeology component of the project included outreach to avocationals, which brought in great amounts of information. One collector had been obtaining materials for 25 years, coming to realize it was illegal; but he kept notes, a computer database, and artifacts in labeled plastic boxes. He allowed us to study these materials and then in 2013 decided to donate the whole huge collection (which we had to retrieve from Mississippi, where he had moved). We have no reason to doubt that these artifacts came from the assigned sites, especially because he wrote detailed, word-processed, dated field notes after each trip to the island. We documented 19 aboriginal archaeological sites (Table 1), most with multiple cultural components and possible components (Table 2). All are shoreline shell middens of varying density. They are detailed in Kimble’s (2012) M.A. thesis and our comprehensive report (White and Kimble 2016) and summarized by time period below. No prehistoric cultural materials were present in the island interior, whether in our subsurface tests or the geological trenches (shown in Figure 2). Two historic sites, a shipwreck and a Civil War fort’s earthworks (FR56 and FR359, respectively), along with early twentieth-century structures, sit on the southeast tip of the island, near the Gulf of Mexico, and are not further discussed here. It is no surprise that Native American sites extend continuously along the north and east shores, but are not present on the south and southwest shores facing the Gulf. The fresh water, sheltered locales, less dynamic waves and shallower water of the bay sides were more attractive. In the center of the west side of the north shore, an oyster reef named Pickalene Bar runs north-south across St. Vincent Sound, and off the northeast tip of the island is another rich oyster reef, Dry Bar (see Figure 1), though oysters are available in any bay waters. The abundance of these shellfish and other aquatic resources explains the concentrations of sites in these areas. While Miller et al. (1980) drew discrete polygons indicating site boundaries, we often found that the differently-numbered sites merged at these arbitrary edges, but we kept to the established site numbers to make data comparable. Paleo-Indian Four sites produced a total of 21 Paleo-Indian points. A Dalton was recovered from the surface during salvage at the Paradise Point site (Braley 1982), but the remainder all came from the donated collection (Figure 4), and help validate the Table 1. Native American archaeological sites on St. Vincent Island S8FR71 E side of N shore Paleo? MArch, LArch, EWd? MWd, LWd, FW, Lamar, LC/Sem SFR352 St. Vincent Island Ferry N shore right across Indian Pass LArch? MWd? LWd? FW, Lamar sR Paco, Arch, EWa, MW? LWa? FW SFR364 Paleo, EArch, MArch, LArch, EWd, MWd, LWd? FW, Lamar 8FR365 LArch, EWd, MWd? LWd? FW, Lamar, LC-Sem? 8FR1277 SE shore S side of Mallard Slough FW? | oR Arch, Mach, Larch, MW, LWA? FW, hist Ame Abbreviations: N-north, S-south, E-east, Paleo-Paleo-Indian, EArch-Early Archaic, MArch-Middle Archaic, LArch-Late Archaic, EWd-Early Woodland, MWd-Middle Woodland, LWd-Late Woodland, FW-Fort Walton, LC-Sem-Lower Creek to Seminole, hist-historic, Amer-American ATHATY GNV ALTA AA VdadIdO TY LSAMA LYON ‘KOO TOAVHONY GNV'IS]T LNAONIA °LS 881 189 THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST 2016 69 (4) Table 2. Archaeological components at the 19 Native American sites on St. Vincent Island ee peer eee ee et eee sol Middle Woodland oa) Late Woodland 2 (7) 4 Z 2 3 Figure 4. Paleo-Indian points from St. Vincent Island: from St. Vincent 3 site, (a-f) unfluted Clovis (?), USF#JC- 8Fr362-13-1.27, .39, .45, .52; (g) Santa Fe or Simpson (?) also locally called Chipola point, USF#JC8Fr362-13-1.27; (h) Beaver Lake (?), USF#JC8Fr362-13-1.39; (i-l) probable Clovis (i is resharpened into a graver or chisel), USF# JC- 8Fr362-13-.39, .45, .52); (m) from Paradise Point site: Clovis (?) USF#JC8Fr71-1.23. WHITE AND KIMBLE St. VINCENT ISLAND ARCHAEOLOGY, NORTHWEST FLORIDA 190 collection’s reliability since such rare artifacts would be hard to obtain if they were not actually there already. The points include fluted/unfluted Clovis, Santa Fe or Simpson, Suwanee, and possible Beaver Lake types. They suggest that what is now the coast was inhabited as early as the first humans got to northwest Florida, up to 13,000 years ago. All four sites are shell middens with later prehistoric cultural components as well, and two each are close to the two oyster bars. Paleo-Indian habitation on what is now St. Vincent Island is far older than the island’s formation. The points are not very eroded or water-worn, with a few (e.g., Figure 4c, d) even retaining some translucent, unweathered areas of the chert. They appear to have washed out recently from buried deposits at the four sites. These sites may have been chosen for early settlement because they were on what was the riverbank during the late Pleistocene. Geological research, including coring in Apalachicola Bay, indicates that the river once flowed much farther to the west than its present mouth indicates (Donoghue et al. 1990). After sea level rose at the end of the Pleistocene, the elevated former riverbanks may have formed a foundation for the later buildup of the barrier island, as wind- and wave-driven sand piled up on them (and then later peoples returned to deposit shell middens). Another attraction for Paleo-Indian settlement might have been nearby springs flowing into the ancient river. A deep spot in St. Vincent Sound right near Pickalene Bar could be a drowned spring. Oysters can be more numerous in areas where more fresh water helps keep their predators down, so the location of the Paleo-Indian materials near the two large modern oyster bars might not be unexpected (though oysters would not have been there during the Pleistocene since the coast of 10,000 years ago is today so far out in the Gulf). USF archaeology lab data show another Paleo-Indian point found by a collector on the east side of the river mouth, also near a large oyster bar. Work in Apalachee Bay, 120 km to the east, has identified Paleo-Indian and Archaic points and other habitation evidence at drowned freshwater springs along paleo-channels of the Aucilla River, some 6-9 km offshore, 4-6 m underwater (Faught 2004). But the much larger Apalachicola River has built up a huge delta extending into Apalachicola Bay and the Gulf (unlike at Apalachee Bay), covering its ancient channels in tens or hundreds of meters of sediment. The accident of increased erosion just in recent decades must be what exposed the long-hidden Paleo-Indian materials. Paleo-Indian evidence has been scarce in the region outside the upper and middle valley of the Chipola River, the Apalachicola’s largest tributary (see Figure 1), some 150 km distant by water from St. Vincent Island. This concentration along the Chipola was thought to be because that smaller river was once the original main river channel during the Pleistocene (White and Trauner 1987). The ancient points from St. Vincent, as well as some other new data, now require us to re-examine the picture of the region’s earliest settlement (White 2016). A popular model for the Southeast hypothesized a few inland “staging areas” from which the earliest human groups moved out to inhabit wider regions (e.g., Anderson and Sassaman 2012:50), with coastal settlement coming later. The new evidence from St. Vincent Island suggests that the first people moved along continually, covering the whole landscape, and the only reason so few Paleo-Indian sites are known from the lower valley and coast is that they are deeply buried in the Holocene delta. The reason they were found on St. Vincent is that recent erosion and sea-level rise cutting into the shoreline uncovered those deeply buried deposits and washed them out onto the beach. Archaic Preceramic Archaic components are present at four sites, indicated mostly by points from the donated collection: Early Archaic Bolen, Hardaway/ Lost Lake corner-notched types (Figure 5), Middle Archaic Benton and other stemmed types, and Florida Archaic Stemmed types attributable to Middle or Late Archaic (Bullen 1975; Cambron and Hulse 1964). They indicate long habitation at many locales (probably also riverbank) while the island was still mainland and throughout the period during which sea level rose and the island took shape. At present, we cannot tell if/when there was a hiatus in occupation, as would be expected after sea-level rise and before or during the formation of the barrier island, though this would be a fruitful research topic; such a hiatus might have happened around 4000-5000 B.P. (Middle-Late Archaic). The points are mostly of pale local chert except for a few of dark-colored non-local stone that may have come from afar. Some are eroded and worn but many others, like the Paleo-Indian points, are not, suggesting they too came from once securely-buried deposits now exposed through the increased modern erosion. Ceramic Late Archaic components, present at seven sites, are represented by plain fiber-tempered pottery, including many water-worn smoothed sherds. Over 80 chert microtools (Figure 6) are also from this time period (up to 4500 years ago; White 2003a, b). Relationships with mound-building Late Archaic adaptations at Poverty Point, in northeast Louisiana and across the Gulf Coast, are indicated by the Figure 5. Probable Lost Lake projectile points (very weathered) from the Early Archaic component at the St. Vincent 5 site (USF# JC8Fr364-15-85 and -100). 191 THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST 2016 69 (4) microtools, and also fragments of characteristic clay balls or Poverty Point Objects, as well as a tiny disk bead of red jasper (Figure 7). Poverty Point-related material culture is distributed across low-lying wetlands of the northern Gulf Coast, with relatively easy connection by water from the major centers of Poverty Point and Claiborne in northeast Louisiana and southeast Mississippi, respectively, to northwest Florida (e.g., Gibson 2000). Microtools may have been for fashioning wooden artifacts, which are not only easier to make out of more abundant raw material, but also are able to float and be recovered if dropped into water amid these vast wetlands. The clay balls have been demonstrated to be for cooking and perhaps other less utilitarian function, such as group identity (Hays et al. 2016). The jasper bead is decorative, but may have had social, ritual, or even spiritual symbolism. The great extent of Poverty Point interaction networks across waterways of the Deep South and the Gulf of Mexico to northwest Florida indicates significant interconnection of Archaic societies and easy transport of people, things, and ideas by water. Figure 6. Late Archaic chert microtools from the St. Vincent 5 site (USF# JC8Fr364-15-1.120; collector’s numbers on some). WHITE AND KIMBLE St. VINCENT ISLAND ARCHAEOLOGY, NORTHWEST FLORIDA 192 Figure 7. Exotic artifacts from St. Vincent Island, St. Vincent 5 site: (a) cut mica fragment, USF# JC8Fr364-15-181; (b) galena cube, USF# JC8Fr364-15-182; (c) jasper disc bead, USF# JC8Fr364-15-273; (d) quartz crystal pendant, USF# JC- 8Fr364-15-119); from Little Redfish Creek site: (e) quartz crystal pendant, USF# JC8Fr1367-14-1-13. Woodland Incised. Notably, however, it is the only one of 30 Middle Woodland mounds in the Apalachicola-lower Chattahoochee Early Woodland occupation on St. Vincent Island is seen valley not known (so far) to have Swift Creek pottery. The at nine sites, with two others producing materials that may also sites with the largest Middle Woodland components were St. be of this time period. One clearly diagnostic ceramic type is Deptford Simple-Stamped. Though the check-stamped pottery that began to be made at this time, some 3000 years ago, looks like all the other check-stamped of subsequent times through the contact period, it can be labeled as Deptford Check-Stamped if it has either linear checks (lands of one direction more pronounced than lands of the other direction) or a tetrapodal vessel base. Middle Woodland components were recognized at nine sites, with an additional possible four others. These are characterized by both Swift Creek Complicated-Stamped and early Weeden Island Incised, Punctated, and Plain ceramics (Figure 8), typical diagnostics in this region (White 2014). In addition, a large number of exotics, such as quartz crystal pendants, a galena cube, and a cut mica fragment (see Figure 7) are assumed to be from this time period, associated with the height of burial mound ceremonialism. The nearest known Middle Woodland burial mound is just across Indian Pass from St. Vincent, on the mainland peninsula: the Indian Pass Mound, 8GU1 (Moore 1902:211-214). It had numerous Middle Woodland graves with elaborate funerary goods, and is known for its Figure 8. Middle Woodland ceramics from St. Vincent 5 site: (a-e) Swift early Weeden Island ceramics, including a type Creek Complicated-Stamped (drilled holes probably for repair), USF# JC- with thin, parallel looped and straight incisions 8Fr364-15-2); (f) Weeden Island Incised (#-4); (g) Weeden Island Plain with that Willey (1949:425-27) named Indian Pass raised animal effigy leg (#-6). 193 THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST 2016 69 (4) Vincent 5, on the west side of the north shore, and the Paradise Point site at the northeast tip of the island. Both were tested (as described below). Late Woodland materials were identified for certain at only two sites, with seven more possible components from this time period. Few artifact types are truly diagnostic for Late Woodland. It is characterized by mostly check-stamped and plain ceramics and late Weeden Island types such as Carrabelle Punctate/Incised and Keith Incised. By this time there are few or no early Weeden Island or Swift Creek ceramics or Middle Woodland exotic materials. Dates on our test excavation at the St. Vincent 5 site showed continuous or repeated Middle through Late Woodland habitation (discussed below). Fort Walton The most abundant diagnostic artifacts from St. Vincent Island are Fort Walton Incised and Point Washington Incised potsherds, including several rim effigies (Figure 9). Late prehistoric Fort Walton components were present at 14 sites, and possibly at three additional sites that had the gritty plain pottery typical of this time period. Inland Fort Walton people in the Apalachicola delta region were intensive agriculturalists who produced maize and other cultigens, while also hunting, fishing, and gathering wild plants and animals. On the coast and in estuarine areas, however, Fort Walton groups apparently continued subsistence strategies of their ancestors, collecting only wild resources, especially aquatic species, as demonstrated in the continuous record of many shell midden sites; they apparently did not farm, but may have obtained agricultural products from upriver (White 2014; White et al. 2012). It is unclear if sociopolitical organization differed from coast to interior. The nearest Fort Walton temple mound center is Pierce Mounds, today in the city of Apalachicola, some 10-20 km across the bay from St. Vincent Island. Mobile fisherfolk could have traveled there for important occasions involving social aggregation, economic interaction, sports, religious or other ritual events. Two cobmarked sherds among the thousands from St. Vincent island suggest interaction with inland farmers. Perhaps smoked fish or shellfish and coastal yaupon holly used to brew traditional black drink were traded inland for maize? Protohistoric/Historic Native Americans Old World invaders are first recorded on the northern Gulf Coast with the Panfilo de Narvaez expedition in 1528 (Covey 1961), which moved north through the Florida peninsula and into Tallahassee, then to the coast before sailing away. Though itis debated whether they visited the Apalachicola delta region, we think Narvaez’s crew made it to St. Vincent Island. They were desperate and eating their horses at the “Bay of Horses” (probably St. Marks, south of Tallahassee), when they decided to build rafts and move by water instead of trek overland. They left on 22 September 1528, sailing westward for seven days in sheltered, shallow waters out of sight of the open Gulf. This route had to have been through Apalachicola Bay behind the barrier islands, including along the north shore of St. Vincent Island. Such a route matches the description (Covey 1961:47- 50) in the only chronicle of the expedition, by Alvar Nufiez Cabeza de Vaca, one of the only four who ultimately survived it. They were medieval men with little knowledge of seafaring, Figure 9. Fort Walton ceramics from Paradise Point site: (a-e) Fort Walton Incised, all rims except e is body sherd, USF# JC8Fr71-1.4; (f) Point Washington Incised rim with interior-facing bird effigy (#1.2). WHITE AND KIMBLE ST. VINCENT ISLAND ARCHAEOLOGY, NORTHWEST FLORIDA 194 but modern kayakers can go from St. Marks to St. Vincent in between 5-9 days. The Spaniards approached an island close to the mainland, and stopped there to steal some Indian canoes, and then at some Indian houses to steal food (dried skates or rays and roe). They then went another 2 leagues (between 5.25 and 10 miles [8.5-16 km]) until they reached a strait (which they named San Miguel) through which they passed to emerge at the open ocean. St. Vincent is 8-9 miles (12-14 km) wide at its wide north end, and comes very close to the mainland at Indian Pass; San Miguel strait had to have been Indian Pass. After stopping at the end of this strait to use the canoes to repair their rafts, the hapless explorers then proceeded on the rest of their historic journey. They may have left a few of their artifacts and/or germs, and they certainly document the presence of natives living and fishing on the island’s north shore in the early fall season. After this Spanish intrusion in the early sixteenth century, Fort Walton material culture disappeared by 1650-1700. By the mission period in the later 1600s, there are a few documented Spanish attempts to establish settlements near the headwaters of the Apalachicola River and forks of the Flint and Chattahoochee, but little information on who was living in the rest of the valley or on the coast. Some names of native groups are known — the Chine, Chatot or Chacato, Sabacola, Tawasa (Hann 2006) — but there is no archaeological evidence for where they lived, though the Spanish at the Apalachee mission of San Luis in Tallahassee recorded the Chine as being coastal dwellers. These protohistoric native groups had a different material culture, generic incised ceramics that may be diagnostic of the mission period and representative of the amalgamated societies of refugees and survivors left after devastation from colonial violence and diseases. Such coalescent societies struggled to survive with new, blended identities (Ethridge 2009), though we do not always know which named Indian groups they represented or how to recognize them archaeologically. One interesting archaeological manifestation dating around 1700 is Lamar, characterized by distinctive Lamar Complicated-Stamped ceramics, usually with heavy grit temper, folded and notched rims, and sloppy stamped patterns on the surface (Figure 10). Not many Lamar sites are known from the Apalachicola delta area (White et al. 2012), nor are the ethnic identities of the people. Lamar pottery was also characteristic of the Apalachee Indians at the Spanish missions Figure 10. Lamar sherds from the St. Vincent 5 site, all USF# JC8Fr364-15-1.1: (a) Lamar Complicated-Stamped with cross-in-circle motif common in the late prehistoric Southeast (though it might also be a sloppy, large-grit-tempered Swift Creek Complicated-Stamped); (b-d) Lamar Plain with varieties of notched, folded rim treatments (c is grog-tempered, with a square chunk of dark red grog visible in bottom of photo). 195 ; THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST in Tallahassee, and other groups such as the Cherokee in north Georgia, though the Apalachee ceramics were heavily grog-tempered and the rest of Lamar is mostly grit-tempered. Whoever Lamar people were, they also disappeared, by the early eighteenth century. Spain’s missions in Florida were destroyed in 1704 by the British and their Creek Indian allies attacking from Georgia. Lamar ceramics are known from four St. Vincent sites, supporting the model that they represent unknown Indians fleeing these attacks and moving westward to French territory. Lamar sites are mostly on the bay sides of barrier islands, where people might have stopped safely during such flight. Later, Creeks themselves moved into the upper Apalachicola, and must have visited St. Vincent Island rarely, as two, possibly three sites have a couple of sherds of their distinctive Chattahoochee Brushed pottery; one of these, St. Vincent 10 site, 8FR369 also produced a British and an Indian (local chert) gunflint. Other Material Culture Other prehistoric artifacts not assignable to a particular time period or cultural affiliation have been picked up on St. Vincent Island’s beaches. Multiple greenstone celts are probably from Fort Walton or Middle Woodland times. Shell pins, awls and other columella tools, pendants, scoops, spatulas, and scrapers have also been recovered, as well as some debitage from shellworking, mostly with lightning whelk (Busycon sinistrum), and occasionally horse conch (Triplofusus giganteus). A curious item is a cut trianglar section from a quahog (Mercenaria) clamshell; at least a half dozen of these were found, as well as a whole shell minus a cut triangle, all from the St.Vincent 5 site, 8FR364. This species is not usually found in panhandle shell middens or other sites, except when its hard, thick shell is made into tools, but the function of such objects is unknown. At several sites a collector picked up dozens of lumpy, rounded fossils that appear to be dolphin internal ear bones; though these are probably natural, it is equally likely that past people picked them up for some purpose. Native People Though no burial mound is known on St. Vincent Island, human remains representing approximately seven individuals have washed out of St. Vincent Island over the years (Braley 1982; White and Kimble 2016), one from Paradise Point site (8FR71) and the rest from St. Vincent 5 or 6 sites, 8FR364- 365. The two most recent were reburied, as noted. The other five sets of remains (teeth, jaws, a cranial fragment), recovered decades ago, were studied by bioarchaeologists and found to represent three young adults with worn but healthy teeth (one had two healed blows to the head), and two middle- aged men with worn teeth and dental problems (one with temporomandibular joint disorder [TMJD]). The ages and cultural affiliations of these remains are unknown. 2016 69 (4) Testing Woodland Components at Two Sites St. Vincent 5 site, SFR364 St. Vincent 5 site, at Pickalene Bar, was selected for testing as it contained the most intact and diverse midden components. Abundant cultural materials have been recovered here, especially after recent storms, which took out sections of midden, even some of the shell road, then redeoposited them back on top of the site. Our 1-x-1-m test unit, located back from the shore in the thickest midden, aimed to find intact deposits and get controlled information. We chose a spot near a recent treefall where thick black sand with oyster shells and artifacts clung to upended roots. This unit, Test Unit A, turned out to be a good sample of undisturbed Middle- to-Late-Woodland deposits, solid oyster midden extending a meter deep, with dark midden sand devoid of shell continuing another 10 cm below that until the culturally-sterile white beach sand was reached. We also picked up Fort Walton sherds on the shoreline surface, but nothing from all the other time periods, whose habitation debris has probably washed away. Table 3 lists materials recovered by the USF investigations. The arbitrary 10-cm levels of TUA produced only four diagnostics among the check-stamped and plain sherds: two Keith Incised and two Swift Creek Complicated-Stamped. A radiocarbon date on charcoal from Level 4 was a good indicator of Late Woodland, at cal. A.D. 870-1010 (2-sigma range). Charcoal from Level 10, the deepest shell refuse deposits, dated to cal. A.D. 560-660 (2-sigma), indicating a time late in the Middle Woodland. The dates suggest that the 60 cm of deposits between these two levels took about 330 years to accumulate, averaging 18 cm of shell garbage per century for this area of the site. Some of the Middle Woodland artifacts from St. Vincent 5 in the donated collection are elaborate (see Figures 7, 8); high-status items not pictured include a ceramic ear (?) disk fragment and several shiny stones. Such objects may indicate special behavior, even while people stayed at the fishing camp. Surface lithic materials recovered by collectors included points, scrapers, microtools, cores, a large biface (27 cm long, 1.9 kg), and debitage of agatized coral, local chert, and Tallahatta sandstone (probably from Alabama); any of these may be associated with the Woodland components. Ground stone from the site included 44 greenstone celt fragments and hones of sandstone and limestone. Flotation samples from each level of TUA (totaling 99 liters of soil) contained abundant faunal remains, which were analyzed by Rochelle Marrinan and her paleonutrition class at Florida State University. Table 4 presents a composite tabulation of these, including number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of individuals (MNI) for each animal that they represent. Some 30 vertebrate and 18 invertebrate taxa were identified; 80 percent of the biomass and 92 percent of the individual animals represented were ray-finned fish, especially mullet, but also drums, catfishes, seatrout, and gar. Birds, chameleon, crab, and land and sea turtle bones were identified. Mammals represented were deer, WHITE AND KIMBLE St. VINCENT ISLAND ARCHAEOLOGY, NORTHWEST FLORIDA 196 we 3 oS be e | 3 ON | .A em ~ | = o a SS o S att -= | 4 = = = BL = wh} A 2 a aac gabe ii. fo — eS oO ww wn ™> | a L siee o la - ‘S | tt e| | 4 SS Y s onset = oO | 3 | — \© ne jn Oiiy a} — esx! om GR WN = 5 6) te e | +H > i MN ~e Sil iaw Pi tS ed S oS om ~teas SS oN oa wm Zia! > =| © =m bade 2 —_— ei] 35 = Sse Sols (ele < = 3 Oo] x ; on S| 3 + GS YM — — raf SS Soot S 9 a. ¢ - 2 z Elche 3 = 2 6 =| § 2G (a) md ee oo ed eS ee cae eae. oa ee =| sis 3 a7 2) 2) ee) ee Sia fe S41 alo 1 Sie s|/e| |= ey a) aed oie S| Bl ae{ al] gl ele] eile 6. alo ele a es Pia a a | & mn | § =i1s4/s/ 38 24 5 Fl el2| 2) 2) 8181o| 8161 e161 ei) ole) 31s 2) EL elEl el ele e lS Sle Shae eee Pie eh eee eee — | > OLBloet alae lai se) a) Sle ks i eS yf opto | so ol ie n te ee ik ae Ss] S/e/ 5/4] 5|3/3/ 3/2] 2/5] 2/5/3818] 8) Ele] gle] 18] 2/8] 8] 8) 2) 2/2 fm | A By lide | Ge Peta a Bm a. eae PB ob bo Bhe Be St Se ee ee oe ee Table 4. Composite list of faunal remains from USF Investigations at 8FR364, identified by Rochelle Marrinan, Alexandra Parsons, and FSU students. Scientific Name Taxonomic Name 264.5751 16.6087 probably deer, bear, panther 259255 Mammal, Large Mammal, Medium probably raccoon, dog, fox Mammal, Small probably rabbits, squirrels Mammal unidentified mammal Sylvilagus spp. rabbits Sigmodon hispidus hispid cotton rat Cetacea whale 67.6 Odocoileus virginianus white-tailed deer 24.2 462.8431 All Mammals 2029.6373 67.1527 Aves unidentified birds Anas crecca teal (duck) Larus marinus great black-backed gull Fulica americana American coot Corvus brachyrynchos fish crow All Birds unidentified birds 67.1527 ruxk os ss Testudines unidentified turtles Kinosternidae mud or musk turtles Cheloniidae sea turtles All turtles 5.5863 5364.1790 247.3444 4.5709 Iguanidae probably chameleon Actinopterygii ray-finned fishes 14502 ee Lepisosteus spp. ladyfish Elops saurus Lol LSIDOTOdOUHINY VaINOT] FH], (b) 69 9107 Scientific Name Taxonomic Name NISP % Clupeidae herrings 51.7409 Siluriformes all catfishes ~ Ictaluridae freshwater catfishes is Ariidae marine catfishes 365 422 hardhead catfish Ariopsis felis 17.6 — N Bagre marinus gafftopsail catfish Mugil spp. mullet . 1137 Caranx sp. probably jack crevalle Sparidae porgies Nn N Archosargus probatocephalus | sheepshead 256 Sciaenidae drums oo ~~ Cynoscion spp. seatrout 15.6 Micropogonias undulatus Atlantic croaker 44.5240 565.1995 269.8816 Pogonias cromis black drum 148 aia redfish _ _ Sciaenops ocellatus 13.7 Paralichthyidae flounder family Diodontidae puffers All bony fishes 16609 Unidentified Vertebrate all unidentified fragments 1216 Total Vertebrate 17924 12486.5670 Invertebrates Decapoda crabs 15.9841 Callinectes sp. blue crab All crabs 163.6682 | 25.2918 | 41.2760 | 3 ATHATY GNV ALTA AA VaIdO TY LSAMH LYON *‘ADOTOAVHOUY GNV'IS]T LNGONTA °LS 86l Taxonomic Name NISP % Wt (g) Scientific Name Mollusca unidentified mollusks Dada Bivalvia unidentified bivalves oS Arcidae arks 7 Anadara brasiliana incongruous ark 26.1 Anadara transversa transverse ark 36.6 Geukensia demissa atlantic =: 20.3 Cryptopleura costata angel wing 24.8 Crassostrea virginica eastern oyster 486 Total bivalves unidentified gastropods marsh periwinkle Gastropoda Littorina irrorata Busycon sp. lightning whelk Busycon contrarium Fasciolariidae horse and tulip conchs Florida horse conch Florida crown conch Se atlantic moon snail impressed odostome oo Pleuroploca gigantea Melongena corona Polynices duplicatus Odostomia impressa Total marine gastropods Total Marine molluscs 10867.1 Gastropoda rose snail Euglandina rosea Polygyra sp. unidentified terrestrial snail ei Total terrestrial snails 661 1543.7833 1944.409 90.5459 1.1393 4.9644 LSIDOTOdOUHINY VaIdO TH dH 1450.1729 3402.8203 (F) 69 9107 WHITE AND KIMBLE St. VINCENT ISLAND ARCHAEOLOGY, NORTHWEST FLORIDA 200 rabbit, rat, other small creatures and, surprisingly, whale. Invertebrates were mostly oyster but included conchs, whelks, ark shells, marsh periwinkle, other bivalves and gastropods, and terrestrial snails. Paradise Point Site, SF R71 On the east side of the island’s north shore and close to the other rich oyster bar, Paradise Point offered a good, if limited research opportunity. The site is difficult to reach, requiring an airboat (or wading some 700 m), and the work needed complex scheduling around winter tides and limited daylight. Geologists Donoghue and Stapor and students joined us to excavate a 1-m wide shoreline profile that showed 30 cm of blackish oyster shell midden overlying about 30 cm of browner clayey sand and less dense shell. Below this was the 20-cm-thick gray clay stratum (Munsell Gley | 3/N or 3/10Y, very dark greenish gray) with no artifacts, interpreted to be the result of a sea-level stand higher than at present. Below that was at least 10 more cm of oyster shell midden. Braley’s (1982) work had included a radiocarbon date placing this lower, Woodland midden at about A.D. 630-700, but the date was on shell, not charcoal, so possibly questionable because of the marine reservoir effect. The upper midden 1s clearly Fort Walton. Figure 11. Geologist Frank Stapor pounds horizontal core tube into the profile at Paradise Point site, 8FR71, right above Though the tide came in quickly, drowning the lower midden exposed in our test, we were able to recover cultural materials and also take from the upper midden a soil sample, a horizontal core (Figure 11) for optimally-stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating, which requires sand grains not exposed to sunlight since burial. The date returned, 550+50 B.P. or about A.D. 1400, fits well with the Fort Walton ceramics of the upper midden. Donoghue also obtained other new radiocarbon dates on shell from the upper midden at 770+60 B.P. (~A.D. 1180) and from the lower midden at 1500+60 and 1430+50 (about A.D. 450 and 520, respectively). These confirm the characterization of the upper midden as Fort Walton and the lower as Middle to Late Woodland. Other site components are known from collectors’ materials, including possible Paleo-Indian, Archaic, and Woodland points, a large-biface cache, fiber-tempered sherds, greenstone celt fragments, a micaceous rock, and shell tools. But most of the site has washed away, taking along the potential for testing these earlier components. Research Summary The evidence of Paleo-Indian occupation from St. Vincent Island’s shorelines has augmented and altered the known settlement pattern of the first inhabitants of the dark clay stratum representing higher-than-present sea level, to get OSL date, 10 March 2010. 201 THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST Apalachicola valley region. It demonstrates that Paleo- Indian sites throughout the South may be greatly obscured by Holocene geomorphological processes in a large alluvial valley, so it is a mistake to think that “absence of evidence is evidence of absence” until data are obtained from deeply buried, intact sources. The newly-recorded Paleo-Indian and Archaic components indicate mainland occupation here before Holocene sea-level rise and the formation of the barrier island some 4000-5000 years ago, probably because the river (and perhaps springs) ran nearby and attracted human habitation. The relative remoteness of St. Vincent and similar islands that we perceive today may be more of a recent historical phenomenon, a result of our modern expertise in traveling to most places by land vehicles. To natives whose fastest means of travel was by water, an island close to the mainland and rich in resources would be the equivalent of today’s attractive shopping mall complex, with grocery stores, restaurants, and nearby inexpensive housing. Late Archaic peoples with fiber- tempered pottery, chert microtools, and Poverty-Point-related clay and stone objects were present as soon as the island formed. The Woodland occupation is extensive, and the Fort Walton evidence even more so. The rich aquatic ecosystems supported frequent, possibly long-term habitation of St. Vincent over prehistoric time, even through the late prehistoric period, when interior societies became more sedentary farmers. Protohistoric Native Americans producing Lamar ceramics and apparently some later Creek/Seminole Indians made short-term visits to the island. At least as early as Late Archaic times, people came to fish, especially for mullet. Schooling mullet are easily available, especially in early fall, about the time of a full-moon cold front, when they move, fat with roe, en masse into the sea to spawn, “long streaks in the Gulf, roiling the surface’; a single fisher with a boat and net can catch more than 70 fish in a short time (Watts 1975:91). Prehistoric peoples covered the sheltered north and east shores with cumulative, linear midden refuse, which may represent thousands of (seasonal?) visits over some 5 millennia. Beyond just seasonal or continual trips for subsistence, there may have been elements of prestige or obtaining special seasonal foods. The material record that includes burials and presumably high-status and non-utilitarian items such as quartz crystal pendants, a jasper bead, and a galena cube, demonstrate that there may have been ceremonial activities associated with the island (or else these were favored charms to insure good fishing!). Stratigraphic evidence at Paradise Point, on the oldest ridge of the island, helps geological interpretation of a time of higher sea level, a possible occupational hiatus, after which Fort Walton people apparently came right back to these good fishing grounds. There is great additional potential on the island for research on seasonality and settlement through time, zooarchaeological, geological, and other issues. Public Archaeology Major goals of our project also included contributing to public archaeology and aiding the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 2016 69 (4) Service’s management of the Refuge’s cultural resources. St. Vincent is famous for illegal artifact collecting, whichis difficult to prevent since its 12,350 acres cannot be regularly patrolled. A monitoring program we established with the Supporters of St. Vincent organization trains volunteers to photograph and document in situ the ceramics and other materials washing out of the shoreline without picking them up. Recommendations outlined in our draft technical report (submitted to the FWS for review pursuant to an ARPA permit) also include better signs, more public education, and other policies to help protect the rapidly disappearing archaeological record. The wide extent of this project encompasses another crucial aspect of public archaeology: sharing of data by collectors. Most visitors to St. Vincent pick things up, and many know it 1s illegal; some save information and materials that would otherwise be lost with the receding shoreline. We hope our work has discouraged casual collectors, or turned them into careful monitors who understand the archaeology and the legal and ethical issues and can contribute, instead of damaging the resource more. The vast amount of additional data on St. Vincent Island, from collections beyond what professional survey could obtain, has enormously expanded archaeological interpretation for the whole Apalachicola region, especially for the least- known, oldest time periods. Collectors’ biases are obvious: relatively little plain pottery, but many sherds with elaborate decoration, unusual items of all kinds, and abundant lithic materials — points, other tools, debitage — which our fieldwork just did not produce. We hope to have demonstrated the value of learning from private collections, even those that may have been obtained under less than approved circumstances. Many professionals now recognize that such information adds new dimensions to archaeological interpretation. Pitblado (2014) has eloquently demonstrated how our current knowledge of Paleo-Indian adaptation across the U.S. would have been impossible without collectors’ data; she contends that we have an ethical obligation to use such data as well as we can. We agree, and are grateful for the help of others who share our passion for the past. Acknowledgements We thank many for help with this research. Rochelle Marrinan, with Alexandra Parsons and the Florida State University paleonutrition class, graciously provided faunal identifications and analyses, including consultation at the Florida Museum of Natural History’s comparative collection. USF bioarchaeologist Rosie Bongiovanni and Florida Division of Historical Resources’ Dave Dickel analyzed the human skeletal remains. Denise Williams, head of the Supporters of St. Vincent National Wildlife Refure, encouraged us to do this project and contributed her active work in the volunteer monitor program. Rick Kanaski, regional archaeologist for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, provided encouragement, patience, and the federal archaeological permit for fieldwork (no. STVNWRO032009). St. Vincent Refuge staff, including former manager Monica Harris, manager Shelley Stiaes, office WHITE AND KIMBLE manager Charlotte Chumney, and others facilitated all research efforts. In the field, the incomparable Dale Shiver and assistant Eddie Eckley transported us to the island daily, loaned their equipment, and rescued us when we got stuck. Donations to support student work given by USF alumna and devoted archaeologist Dorothy Ward and Nick Baldwin of the Friends of St. Joseph Bay Preserves provided the only funding for the project. Marie and Joey Romanelli donated 11 trips to/from the island on the St. Vincent shuttle service. The St. Joseph Bay Buffer State Preserve of the Apalachicola National Estuarine Research Reserve (ANERR) provided crew lodging, and staff Pat Millender and Jimmy Moses worked a day with the crew and helped fix the USF truck when it lost 4-wheel-drive capability. Special thanks go to the intrepid 2009 USF student field school crew. Chad Braley of Southeastern Archaeological Services in Athens, Georgia, and Jim Miller, former state archaeologist of Florida, provided details of their earlier work, and Charlie Ewen, at East Carolina University, found data on the Phelps collections there. Geologist Joe Donoghue, now at University of Central Florida, was there for advice and fieldwork for many years; he and geologist Frank Stapor, now at Tennessee Tech University, helped with excavations at Paradise Point and provided dates to interpret sea level fluctuations. Stapor also sent old photos and documents. Jeff Du Vernay provided the LiDAR map. Kimble is grateful to the Florida Archaeological Council for a John W. Griffin Student Award, which paid for the two radiocarbon dates. Honors student Kaitlyn Keffer organized the large donated collection. We appreciate collectors who shared data, especially the donor of the USF JC collection. Also, many thanks to Rick Kanaski, Rich Weinstein, an anonymous reviewer, and editors Saccente and Du Vernay for helpful comments on drafts of this article. References Cited Anderson, David G., and Kenneth E. Sassaman 2012 Recent Developments in Southeastern Archaeology. From Colonization to Complexity. SAA Press, Society for American Archaeology, Washington, iG. Balsillie, James H., and Donoghue, Joseph F. 2004 High Resolution Sea-Level History for the Gulf of Mexico Since the Last Glacial Maximum. Florida Geological Survey Report of Investigation No. 103, Tallahassee. 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Stevenson 2007 Geophysical Mapping of Oyster Habitats in a Shallow Estuary; Apalachicola Bay, Florida. U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2006-1381. U.S. Department of the Interior 2012 Comprehensive Conservation Plan and Environmental Assessment. St. Vincent National Wildlife Refuge. Franklin and Gulf Counties, Florida. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Southeast Region, Atlanta, Georgia. Walker, Karen J., Frank W. Stapor, and William H. Marquardt 1995 Archaeological Evidence for a 1750-1450 BP Higher-than-Present Sea Level Along Florida’s Gulf Coast. In Holocene Cycles: Climate, Sea Levels, and Sedimentation, edited by C. W. Finkl, Jr., pp. 205— 218. Journal of Coastal Research Special Issue No. ae Watts, Betty M. 1975 The Watery Wilderness of Apalach, Florida. Apalach Books, Tallahassee. WHITE AND KIMBLE St. VINCENT ISLAND ARCHAEOLOGY, NORTHWEST FLORIDA 204 White, Nancy Marie 2003a ‘Testing Partially Submerged Shell Middens in the Apalachicola Estuarine Wetlands, Franklin County, Florida. The Florida Anthropologist 56(1):15-45. 2003b Late Archaic in the Apalachicolalevd Chattahoochee Valley of Northwest Florida, Southwest Georgia, Southeast Alabama. The Florida Anthropologist 56(2): 69-90. 2013. Pierce Mounds Complex, An Ancient Capital in Northwest Florida. Report to George Mahr and to the Division of Historical Resources, Tallahassee. Department of Anthropology, University of South Florida, Tampa. 2014 Woodland and Mississippian in Northwest Florida — Part of the South but Different. In New Histories of Pre-Columbian Florida, edited by N. Wallis and A. Randall, pp 223-242. University Press of Florida, Gainesville. 2016 Paleo-Indian in the Apalachicola-Lower Chattahoochee Valley Region. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Southeastern Archaeological Conference, Athens, GA. White, Nancy Marie, Jeffrey P. Du Vernay, and Amber J. Yuellig 2012 Fort Walton Culture in the Apalachicola Valley, Northwest Florida. In Late Prehistoric Florida. Archaeology at the Edge of the Mississippian World, edited by K. Ashley and N. White, pp. 231-274. University Press of Florida, Gainesville. White, Nancy Marie, and Elicia Kimble 2016 Archaeological Survey and Testing on St. Vincent Island, Northwest Florida. Draft report submitted to the Regional Historic Preservation Office, Southeast Region, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Hardeville, South Carolina. White, Nancy Marie, and Audrey Trauner 1987 Archaeological Survey in the Chipola River Valley, Northwest Florida. Report to the Division of Historical Resources, Tallahassee. Department of Anthropology, University of South Florida, Tampa. Willey, Gordon R. 1949 = Archeology of the Florida Gulf Coast. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections Vol. 113. Washington, ie: 2016 FIELD SCHOOL SUMMARIES 2016 University of North Florida (UNF) Summer Archaeological Field School Keith Ashley and S. Lee Johns The Caracasil site (8DU21730) was the scene of the 2016 University of North Florida (UNF) summer archaeological field school. It was selected for testing because of its St. Johns II (A.D. 900-1250) component. Located on Naval Station Mayport, Florida, the site currently lies in a maritime hammock, fringed on three sides by expansive tidal marshes, near the mouth of the St. Johns River. All archaeological work at the site was performed with the permission of the U.S. Navy. Five weeks in the field were followed by another five weeks in the lab, analyzing all artifacts and a small sample of animal bone. The Caracasi site was recently identified during a CRM project by SEARCH, Inc. who surveyed a 19-acre parcel belonging to the U.S. Navy and identified intact St. Johns II shell middens (Hendryx and Nelson 2016). A series of archaeological sites previously had been recorded nearby on private lands, including two sand burial mounds. The Mayport Mound (8DU96), a Swift Creek mounded cemetery, was once located approximately 180 m south of Caracasi, prior to its destruction during subdivision development in the late 1960s. Positioned 150 m southeast of the Mayport Mound was the Atosi2 Mound (8DU97, formerly known as Mayport Mound 2), which was razed during the building of a convenience store in the early 1970s. This burial mound was partly excavated by a local amateur group before its leveling, and many of the artifacts are now curated at the Jacksonville Museum of Science and History. Pottery from the mound and an AMS assay on soot (A.D. 890-980) from one of the St. Johns II vessels date the mound to local St. Johns I period. Armed with this preliminary information, the UNF field school set out to test the Caracasi site in greater detail. Due to time constraints, we focused on the eastern part of the site, which had revealed intact shell midden deposits and high pottery frequencies during CRM shovel testing. Ten 50 cm? shovel tests were dug to fill in the initial site grid. We decided to center excavations around a cluster of oyster shell heaps. After clearing this area of vegetation, we realized that what we thought were individual shell heaps were in fact the remnants of one large mounded shell midden that had apparently been mined for shell; much of its interior had been taken away, leaving vertical, shell exposed walls. It is estimated that the mounded shell midden originally measured about 16 x 12 m and was likely 80-100 cm high. Nine | x 2 m units were excavated (Figure 1). Units 1-3 VoL. 69 (4) THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST formed an L-shaped block along the shell heap’s southern periphery, Units 6-7 formed a 1 x 4 m trench on its eastern flank, and Unit 8 was placed on its northern edge. Units 2 and 3 demonstrated extensive shell crushing in their upper levels suggesting heavy impact as a result of historic period shell mining activities. Units 4 and 5 were placed 16 m to the southeast, adjacent to a productive shovel test. Unit 9 sampled a separate shell heap, 8 m east of Units 6-7. Sampled shell middens were composed mostly of oyster, with minor amounts of Atlantic ribbed mussel, stout tagelus, shark eye and whelk. Quahog clam was surprisingly rare. Subsurface features were limited to a few shell-filled pits. In addition, distinct coquina concentrations were identified within areas of the oyster-dominated shell midden. Coquina is a small clam that inhabits the ocean surf zone. Because of its annual growth cycle, its maximum shell length can be used to determine the season of coquina death. Currently, three coquina samples have been analyzed, with all results suggesting a fall harvest of September-November. A radiometric assay on oyster shell from the heap yielded a date of A.D. 1070-1170. St. Johns II pottery types dominated in all unit and feature contexts. In fact, only one Woodland period sherd (Unit 5) was recovered during unit excavations. Non-ceramic artifacts from the field school were limited and include a fossilized shark tooth and bone fragment, a stone biface fragment, a few lithic flakes, and an intricately incised segment of a bone pin. Preliminary results of ongoing faunal analysis mirror our current understanding of St. Johns II subsistence. Greater than Y%” bone from a few unit levels has been completed to date. The assemblage is overwhelmingly bony fish, with relatively small amounts of cartilaginous fish (including three shark teeth), reptile, bird, crab, and mammal. The dominant fish species identified in Unit 1 include sea trout, redfish, flounder, and catfish. Clearly, St. Johns II people at the site were not maize farmers but fisher-hunter-gatherers who harvested the rich and diverse aquatic resources of the St. Johns River estuary. In sum, the Caracasi site appears to represent the only intact section of a once extensive St. Johns II site spread intermittently across a broad area north of the Atosi Mound. The lack of archaeological investigations in the intervening area prior to subdivision development of private lands hampers our understanding of the precise nature and layout of this St. Johns IJ community. Radiometric dates from the two areas suggest a pre-thirteenth century date for St. Johns H activities. Based on ceramic and faunal evidence, the sampled shell middens at Caracasi indicate every day domestic refuse, several hundred meters from coeval mortuary activity to the south. DECEMBER 2016 207 THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST 2016 69 (4) Figure 1. UNF excavations at the Caracasi site. End Notes: 1. Caracasi is a Timucua Indian word for a specific species of fish. Early Spanish translate it as corvina (Aaron Broadwell 2016, personal communication), a fish of the Sciaenidae family, commonly called croakers or drums. 2. Atosiis a Timucuan word for owl (Aaron Broadwell 2016, personal communication). Reference Cited Hendryx, Greg, and Blue Nelson 2016 Executive Summary: Phase I Archaeological Survey at Naval Station Mayport, Duval County, Florida. Report submitted by SEARCH, Inc. to the U.S. Navy. University of Florida’s St. Johns Archaeological Field School 2016 Kenneth E. Sassaman After a two-year hiatus, the St. Johns Archaeological Field School returned to Silver Glen Run in 2016 to explore places below, between, and beyond locations of prior investigation. Silver Glen (8LA1) was the location of one of the largest deposits of freshwater shell when it was visited in the 1870s by Jeffries Wyman of Harvard University. Although the site was mined for shell in the early twentieth century, remnants are preserved on property of the field school host, the Juniper Club of Louisville, Kentucky. Moreover, subterranean deposits not observed by Wyman and escaping mining are distributed along the full extent of Silver Glen Run and beyond. Over six prior field schools, starting in 2007, centered on the most prominent deposits; efforts in 2016 aimed to fill gaps in coverage. Among the gaps was the lack of definitive evidence for the basal component of the largest shell deposit, the one that impressed Wyman most, at the mouth of Silver Glen Run. We learned in 2007 that the south ridge of this massive U-shaped mound was constructed about 4,000 years ago. We also knew from earlier work that the opposite, north ridge housed abundant pottery of comparable age, and Zack Gilmore (2016) determined that much of it was nonlocal, evidently brought to Silver Glen at times of regional gathering. But we had good reason to believe that older deposits existed beneath the mined surface of the north ridge. Subsurface tests in prior years failed to locate intact deposits, owing to the fact that mining actually extended well below the present-day surface and was later infilled to reclaim the land. One portion that escaped such impact was at the west end of the north ridge, where concreted shell impeded mining operations. Wielding chisels, hammers, and pry bars, field school students managed to cut through the hardened fill to reach the bottom, just at the top of the present- 2016 FIELD SCHOOL SUMMARIES 208 day water table (Figure 1). A single AMS assay on charcoal at the base of the profile provided a two-sigma calibrated age estimate of 10,500—10,260 B.P. This is the oldest age estimate for archaeological deposits along Silver Glen and although it does not signal the onset of shell mounding at the site, it is consistent with the onset of spring flow and the beginning of an enduring, if intermittent land-use pattern that culminated in the construction of massive shell mounds. Shell mounding along Silver Glen Run actually predates the early pottery period by at least 2,000 years. Since its start, the field school has investigated the remnants of what we call Locus A, a 200-m-long shell ridge that was also mined for shell. Stratigraphic testing showed that the ridge went up after about 6,000 years ago, and below the ridge are large pit features dating as old as 9,000 cal B.P. Our University of Oklahoma field school partner, Asa Randall, determined that the older pits extended the full length of the shell ridge, lending credence to his idea that later mound builders were creating Figure 1. Graduate Teaching Assistant Terry Barbour (in test unit) and a field school student record the profile of unit that reached the base of mined shell deposit at Silver Glen. Other TAs for the 2016 field school included Anthony Boucher and Josh Goodwin of the University of Florida, and Nicole Cerimele of the University of Oklahoma. tangible citations to ancient times (Randall 2015). Continuing this line of research, field school students excavated test units just outside the margins of the shell ridge (Figure 2). More pits were found, some evidently old, some clearly not so old. On balance, it would appear that the spatial conformity between the oldest pits and the shell ridge at Locus A holds. Nonetheless, at least one large pit to the west of the shell ridge may prove to be the exception to the rule. An age estimate for this feature is pending. Figure 2. Field school students exploring the margins of mined shell ridge at Locus A of Silver Glen. The large shell-filled pit in the far corner is typical of many of the subsurface features of the site. Finally, field school students this year enjoyed the adventure of reconnaissance work at an unrecorded shell site 4.5 km to the south of Silver Glen, on Little Juniper Run. Two small, adjoining hammocks are located in an extensive swamp where Little Juniper Run drains into Lake George. A short visit years ago to what the Juniper Club calls Kitt’s Isle verified the presence of shell deposits across both hammocks. Orange and St. Johns pottery was observed on the surface and in tree throws. We have since been eager to excavate some test units but the logistics of boat travel dissuaded us until this year. The effort proved worthwhile. Shovel tests across the south hammock revealed intact stratified shell midden in excess of 3 m below the surface and about 2 m below the water table. Additional coring is needed to substantiate the depth of the deposit but its age is at least 4,500 years cal B.P. Shovel testing of the north hammock were suspended after multiple encounters with human skeletal remains. Although additional excavation is rightfully prohibited, permission was granted to extract a core from the center of the hammock. The shell deposit proved to be 230-cm thick, the bottom third of which is below the water table. An AMS assay on charcoal from the basal stratum provided a two-sigma calibrated age estimate of 8,595—8,460 B.P. This makes the Kitt’s Isle mortuary coeval with the Archaic pond burial tradition of Florida. It remains to be seen, through geoarchaeological work, if the water levels at the outset of human interment at Kitt’s Isle were above the elevation of the basal shell deposit. If so, the Kitt’s 209 THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST 2016 69 (4) Isle mortuary program may well be a variation on the pond burial tradition. The St. Johns Archaeological Field School will reconvene at Silver Glen next year, in 2018, when Asa Randall and students from the University of Oklahoma will join forces with University of Florida students to continue to delve into a history that was severely impacted by mining nearly a century ago but is now under the good stewardship of the Juniper Club. We hope to be able to conduct more extensive testing at Kitt’s Isle, provided, that is, we can devise a dewatering operation to draw down the water table enough to reach the basal deposits. Silver Glen and its surroundings still have much to teach us. References Cited Gilmore, Zackary I. 2016 Gathering at Silver Glen: Community and History in Late Archaic Florida. University Press of Florida, Gainesville. Randall, Asa R. 2015 = Constructing Histories: Archaic Freshwater Shell Mounds and Social Landscapes of the St. Johns River, Florida. University Press of Florida, Gainesville. University of West Florida 2016 Campus Summer Field School Summary Courtney Boren, Hillary Jolly-Kinison, Llew Kinison, Jennifer Knutson, Katherine Sims, and Ramie A. Gougeon, Ph.D. One section of the University of West Florida’s (UWF) 10-week-long field schools is divided into two 5-week halves between which the students learn maritime and terrestrial archaeological field methods. This year, students in the Combined Terrestrial/Maritime archaeological field school had the unique experience of excavating on both the land site and shipwrecks of the 1559 Tristan de Luna settlement. We additionally contributed to the thesis research of two graduate students on two other sites in Escambia and Santa Rosa counties. Students gained experience through shovel testing, excavating units and features, mapping, completing proper documentation, and developing research strategies. Graduate supervisory training is also a critical component of the field school experience. Principal Investigator Dr. Ramie Gougeon was assisted by UWF graduate students Courtney Boren, Hillary Jolly, Llew Kinison, Dillon Roy, Michael DuBose, Katherine Sims, and Jennifer Knutson. Adrianne Sams Walker with the UWF Historic Trust coordinated our field operations at Arcadia Mills. This summer, the combined field school had the opportunity to work on Native American components recently identified by UWF Institute of Archaeology staff within the Luna settlement site. It should be noted that Native American materials have been found in many areas of the settlement site and likely represent small, discrete resource extraction sites and longer-term habitation sites dating from the Archaic through Historic periods. Research questions regarding the identity of Indians around Pensacola Bay immediately prior to, during, and immediately after Luna’s short-lived settlement were addressed by targeting shell middens found across the neighborhood. This work also supported graduate thesis research being undertaken by Courtney Boren. Spoon- auger tests, probing, and shovel tests were used to identify concentrations of shell and Native American materials. Units were then placed to capture data regarding the integrity and structure of the midden deposits, as well as any other associated features and artifacts. A possible Mississippian component of the site was revealed by two shovel tests excavated a few months prior to the summer field school. Units placed in this area yielded a high concentration of late prehistoric and possibly protohistoric pottery. One unit contained a bell-shaped basin feature with a sand-tempered plain Mississippian partial vessel. A neighboring unit revealed a large shell-filled pit feature. This feature contained Late Mississippian ceramics, various types of shell (mostly oyster), a variety of faunal remains (mammal, bird, fish, and turtle), and a coprolite. Feature excavation photo is presented in Figure 1. Figure 1. UWF Combined field school student Emily Kovaks excavates a shell feature on 8ES1. A shallow but expansive Native American shell midden was encountered by the Luna field school and turned over to the Combined section for excavation. After spoon-auger tests 2016 FIELD SCHOOL SUMMARIES 210 and probing to establish the limits of the shell deposits, units were excavated to eventually comprise a 7 m x | m trench (Figure 2). The uncovered sheet-like shell midden ranged from roughly 20-30 cm below the surface along the trench, and contained European goods above and along the top of it. The midden itself contained shells (predominantly oyster), Mississippian pottery sherds, fish and turtle bone fragments, and a few chert flakes. Numerous samples of carbonized material, soil, and sherds were collected in order to obtain radiometric and OSL dates for these features. Figure 2. UWF Combined field school students and supervisors starting a long profile drawing. The 1760’s French Huguenot colony of Campbell Town was briefly located on northwest Escambia Bay near UWF’s campus in Pensacola. Graduate student Jen Knutson is searching for Campbell Town and used part of the Combined field school in her efforts. Thanks to the community’s support and collaboration, almost twenty homeowners granted permission for UWF students to conduct shovel testing on their properties. Field investigations fell within a three-mile radius and ultimately resulted in some 90 shovel tests conducted in urban areas, residential neighborhoods, and approximately 340 acres of heavily-wooded and undeveloped tracts. Our survey revealed a few previously undocumented prehistoric sites as well as expanding or defining the boundaries of some others. Much of the ceramic assemblage uncovered during the summer is Native American, including those of the Historic period, while the remaining five percent of the assemblage is made up of colonial and modern ceramics. Lab analysis will attempt to identify artifacts used by the small number of colonial Huguenot families during the time when west Florida was a British province. More archaeological evidence will be forthcoming as the Phase I survey continued into the fall season after the field school ended. Summer 2016 was also marked by UWF archaeologists continuing the long tradition of collaboration at Arcadia Mill in Milton, Florida. Arcadia Mill was once the largest nineteenth- century water-powered industrial complex in northwest Florida, and the archaeological components surrounding the footprint of the family home have been the subject of recent study by UWF field schools. Arcadia’s pending acquisition of a 3.7-acre parcel formerly associated with Arcadia’s agricultural fields prompted a Phase I shovel test survey. Students excavated 25 shovel tests in 50 m intervals around the perimeter of the property, and in 25 m intervals around a historic home located in the center of the parcel. All artifacts recovered from the survey seem to be related to the construction and maintenance of the 1935 house. Additional field time was dedicated to collecting data for the thesis research of graduate student Katherine Sims, who is investigating the yard of an eighteenth-century cabin associated with the Arcadia family home. A total of 133 auger tests and targeted shovel tests were positioned around the cabin’s yard with the goal of detecting subtle stratigraphic differences between activity areas (Figure 3). Figure 3. UWF Combined field school student shows the results of a spoon auger test at Arcadia Mill. 211 THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST Analysis of materials from all of our projects began with the fall semester lab course taken by many of our field school students. Some preliminary results from the Luna settlement excavations were presented at the Society of Historical Archaeology meetings in January 2017, and will be featured at the Pensacola Archaeological Society “Summer Field School Preview” meeting this spring. Continued work on the Native American components of the Luna settlement site is being explored for the 2017 field school. As always, we invite interested readers to “like” our Facebook page (https://www. facebook.com/UWFCampusFieldSchool). 2016 University of South Florida (USF) Summer Field School Summary Collette Witcher, Katherine Padula, and Jean Louise Lammie During the 2016 summer session, six undergraduate and three graduate students from the University of South Florida, under the direction of Dr. Thomas Pluckhahn, participated in a six week field school that encompassed several locations (Figure 1). Students spent the first week of the program on Sapelo Island, Georgia, before returning to Florida for the final five weeks. During the session students assisted with four different ongoing projects with vastly different research goals. On Sapelo Island, students assisted University of Georgia Ph.D. candidate Brandon Ritchison with his large-scale shovel Figure 1. The University of South Florida field crew. From left to right: Savannah Rudolph, Brianna Ridge, Colette 2016 69 (4) test survey at the Kenan Field site. Students learned the basics of using a total station, shovel testing, and excavating in levels while learning about Mississippian culture through the large amount of cultural materials yielded by the shovel tests. The 2016 crew also had the opportunity to assist M.A. student Collette Witcher with her thesis project mapping postbellum Gullah Geechee homesteads. Students gained experience in the various methods of reconnaissance survey and the opportunity to observe late nineteeth to mid-twentieth- century historic archaeological sites. Using 1929 soil maps to identify potential site locations, the fieldwork consisted of locating, recording, and conducting one shovel test per site. A total of 15 domestic sites were discovered and 12 shovel tests were performed. All shovel tests were positive and together with the surface collections reveal a range of artifacts that indicate what daily life was like for Sapelo Island’s Geechee residents. Glass bottles predominate, but students also discovered a variety of historic ceramics including flow blue transfer print and pearlware. Survey will continue in the winter to record any remaining potential sites and interviews with the Geechee community members will shed light on the meaning of these sites as a part of their heritage. Following work at Sapelo, the group returned to Florida for the remainder of the field season. At Crystal River Archaeological State Park, in conjunction with members of the FPAN West-Central office, the group opened up two test units on a modern “mound” created from river-bottom Witcher, Rachael Westfall, Teddy Horowitz, Jean Louise Lammie, Shannon McGuffey, Kira Benton, Katherine Padula. 2016 FIELD SCHOOL SUMMARIES Zig dredge. The mound is used by park staff for educational purposes, but needed some cleanup. Students learned how to excavate test units and also gained experience speaking to the public about the excavation and distinguishing modern from prehistoric artifacts. In addition to work at Crystal River, students assisted USF master’s student Katherine Padula with her thesis research in Homosassa, Citrus County. Aiming to uncover artifacts or structural remains related to David Levy Yulee’s Margarita Plantation, students excavated shovel tests at both Yulee Sugar Mill Ruins Historic State Park and on adjacent private property. Despite a few dozen shovel tests - and plenty of limestone - less than 10 cultural materials were found. Survey of adjacent private properties continues. Summary of the University of West Florida’s Maritime Archaeological Field Methods Course — 2016 Meghan Mumford The 2016 University of West Florida (UWF) maritime field school afforded students an extremely rewarding experience filled with educational hands-on learning and new discoveries. Most students participated in a 10-week combined field school consisting of five weeks of onsite training on a terrestrial site followed by five weeks training on underwater sites. The course is preceded by a one week scientific training preparation. UWE students, UWF professors, and graduate students taught methods of maritime archaeology to undergraduate students who participated in Phase I survey and Phase II archaeological investigations on a wide range of submerged cultural resources, located in a variety of marine environments. Students were also given the opportunity to work in the UWF conservation lab, learning how to identify and conserve archaeological material recovered from marine sites and assist in the processing of survey data. Representative fieldwork photographs are presented in Figures | and 2. UWF received a Special Category Grant from the State of Florida, Department of State, Division of Historical Recourse in the fall of 2014. This grant allowed for continued Phase II investigation of the Emanuel Point Il shipwreck (EPII), a sixteenth-century wreck associated with Don Tristan de Luna y Arellano’s colonization fleet. Over the course of 10 weeks, students participated in the excavation, recordation, and interpretation of | m x | m test excavation units in the midships area of EPII and in the exposed structure aft of the sternpost of EPII. Exposed hull structure included the mainmast step complex amidships, and what has been preliminarily interpreted as the broken super structure of EPII in an area aft of the sternpost. Students also participated in the screening and sorting of artifacts recovered during the EPII excavations and learned identification and recording techniques for artifacts in the conservation lab. Figure 1. EPII Artifacts. Photograph courtesy of the University of West Florida. 213 THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST 2016 69 (4) Phase I survey included an introduction to and implementation of side scan sonar and magnetometer survey, the processing of respective data, and target diving to ground truth anomalies. The survey conducted during the field school season coincided with the continued survey of Pensacola Bay to locate the four remaining ships associated with Don Tristan de Luna y Arellano’s colonization fleet. Students were also introduced to sub-bottom survey and data processing. Additional Phase I recordation of known resources was used to teach students techniques such as base line offset and trilateration. These techniques were used on nineteenth- century schooner barges located in Blackwater River known as the Shield’s Point wrecks. Students also were exposed to various resources in the Blackwater River including a nineteenth-century paddle wheel steamer, the Columbia, and a nineteenth-century single screw steamer, the City of Tampa. Students completed orientation dives on each vessel, exposing them to two different submerged cultural resources located in different environments within the same river system. During the Phase I survey of Pensacola Bay, a magnetometer anomaly with a 59nT reading was investigated by UWF staff and students who reported the presences of ballast stones and possible timbers. The initial investigation yielded artifacts primarily associated with Don Tristan de Luna y Arellano’s colonization fleet, consisting of Spanish majolica, olive jar, concreted fastener fragments, and varying sizes of ballast. Students then assisted in establishing a baseline over the anomaly and exposed cultural material. They also performed a 40 m x 40 m hand held magnetometer survey at 1 m intervals, and aided in the installation and excavations of two 1 m x | m test units on the potential site. Excavations exposed intact wooden structure consisting of six articulated frames, outer hull planking, and two longitudinal stringers, one with two rabbets. The artifact assemblage and exposed structure have been identified by UWF staff archaeologist as a third shipwreck associated with Don Tristan de Luna y Arellano’s colonization fleet! This experience offered UWF staff and students a unique opportunity to participate in the initial discovery, recordation, excavation, and identification of another rare sixteenth-century vessel, EPIII! Figure 2. Exploring EPIII. Photograph courtesy of UWF Division of Anthropology and Archaeology. IN MEMORIAM David Sutton Phelps, Jr. (1929 to 2009) David Sutton Phelps, Jr., Ph.D. died February 21, 2009, in Fort Pierce, Florida. During a career that spanned half a century, he made important contributions to the historic and precolumbian archaeology of the southeastern United States and mid-Atlantic regions. Phelps worked as Assistant (1964 to 1968) and Associate Professor (1968 to 1970) of Anthropology at Florida State University (FSU) in Tallahassee, Florida. For three years during his time there (1967 to 1969), he served as Editor of The Florida Anthropologist. He initiated important improvements to the journal, such as increasing its size to an 8.5 x 11 inch format. Phelps was born on July 25, 1929, in Gatesville, North Carolina, to a wealthy and prominent local family. Just three months and one day after his birth, the stock market crash wiped out his family’s fortune. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, Phelps spent summers with favorite Uncle Asa Gray and Aunt Vafhtie Phelps to help his mother make ends meet. In the summer of 1938, his aunt and uncle volunteered at the Town Creek Indian Mound in Mt. Gilead, North Carolina. The nine year-old Phelps took great interest in the excavations, an experience that proved to be the most influential of his youth. Phelps attended Warwick High School in New Port News, Virginia, where he was quarterback of the football team and active in the drama department, playing Sir Lancelot in a production of King Arthur’s Camelot. Ever a ladies’ man, Phelps enjoyed sharing his southern charm with pretty girls of all descriptions, especially cheerleaders from rival schools. In 1946, at 17, he fled a turbulent home life and, lying about his age, signed on as an ordinary seaman in the Merchant Marine. Employed by ESSO (now Exxon), he barged around the Americas. Once mooring at Fort Lauderdale, he fell in love with the natural beauty of Florida and resolved, some day, to live there. In 1948, he enlisted in the United States Air Force (Figure 1), serving first as a radio operator on cargo runs to and from Alaska. Later, he was sent to Germany, where he participated in the Berlin Airlift. He was honorably discharged in 1952 as a Sergeant. In 1953, he married Peggy Joann Sisson, a native of Mississippi, a union lasting 40 years. In the summer of 1958, Phelps’ life took a fortuitous turn when he joined excavations as a field technician at the Hardaway site (31ST4) in Stanley County, North Carolina (Coe et al. 1995). The Hardaway site is listed in the National Register of Historic Places, with Paleoindian through Early Archaic components. After working there, he was offered the position of Supervisor of Archaeology at Town Creek (3 1MG2 and 31MG3), a position he held for 14 months. VoL. 69 (4) THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST Figure 1. A young Phelps in 1948, training with the United States Air Force. He continued to assist at the Hardaway site, finding that comparative study of artifacts found there and at Town Creek allowed him to develop a chronology for Town Creek’s early components. At Town Creek, Phelps was involved in the discovery of an ossuary from the Pee Dee culture (A.D. 1000 to 1500), a South Appalachian variant of Mississippi culture. The feature was preserved in situ as an example of a Pee Dee mortuary house. Phelps also completed reconstruction of the ‘priests’ house” started by his predecessor, Stanley South (Coe ét al. 1993): During his time at Town Creek, Phelps began to develop an approach to archaeology that included investigating informant reports about the location and nature of sites. In addition to writing site reports and working to develop capital improvements at Town Creek, Phelps worked tirelessly to educate the local community and tourists about Town Creek. He presented lectures to community groups, school children, and tourists, and he gave interviews for radio programs. In this outreach, he was a pioneer in Public Archaeology. Today, Town Creek Indian Mound has become a very significant site DECEMBER 2016 217 THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST for public education and interpretation. It is a North Carolina Historic Site and a National Historic Landmark, with a reconstructed stockade, mortuary structures, and interpretive videos and events. In 1959, Phelps left Town Creek and attended the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, where he completed a B.A. in Anthropology in 1960. He started M.A. studies there, but in 1962 he transferred to the Ph.D. program in Anthropology at Tulane University in New Orleans. At Tulane, he was directed by Dr. Robert Wauchope for whom Phelps served as a research assistant for the Handbook of Middle American Indians and The Archaeology of Northern Mesoamerica. Phelps enjoyed the distinction of being the first person to be graduated by Tulane with a Ph.D. in Anthropology, in 1964 (Figure 2). His dissertation was titled The Final Phases of the Eastern Archaic. Figure 2. Phelps working on his dissertation, ca. 1964, Tulane University, Louisiana. Immediately after graduation, Phelps joined the faculty at FSU. He made a major contribution to Florida Archaeology by naming and defining the Norwood culture. He viewed it as an important, distinct Late Archaic-period culture that produced fiber-tempered pottery in Florida’s eastern panhandle region and adjacent southern Georgia (Figure 3). The Norwood culture was the equivalent of other regional, coeval cultures, such as Orange, Stallings, and Wheeler (Phelps 1965, 1966a). Ceramic types included Norwood Plain and Norwood Simple Stamped. He described Norwood Plain as “rougher” than plain sherds of the Orange and Stallings series. He described Norwood Simple Stamped as having parallel, linear, dowel impressions. Phelps’ Norwood culture and ceramic series have tended to be overlooked. Indeed, they were misunderstood by some archaeologists, such as Ripley Bullen who erroneously thought 2016 69 (4) ) ~ major Late Archaic Pottery Traditions in the American Southeast “same e and Thom’s Creek Pottery. Map modified from Sassaman (1993). that they were merely transitional phenomena. Someday, they will receive the recognition originally intended and deserved. As part of his Norwood research, Phelps (1966a) visited the Tucker site (8FR4) in Franklin County, Florida. There, he followed in the footsteps of William Sears. Phelps found Norwood and Fort Walton components, previously unreported. Indeed, his finds of fiber-tempered pottery at the Tucker site inspired the “Norwood” name, which honors the Norwood family of Tallahassee, who owned a cottage at the Tucker site. Phelps viewed Deptford Simple Stamped as evolving from Norwood Simple Stamped. In a related paper presented to the Southeastern Archaeological Conference, Phelps (1966b) presented a preliminary definition of the Deptford Cross Stamped type. He suggested that with the emergence of the Deptford phase, the cross-stamped type increased in relative frequency. In 1968, Phelps refined another Late Archaic-period phase by naming three new types in the Thom’s Creek ceramic series: plain, incised, and simple stamped. He included discussions of manufacture and rim and lip forms (Phelps 1968). Phelps’ Thom’s Creek Simple Stamped is sometimes disputed because of its similarity to other types in the region. Phelps (1969) also made significant contributions to our understanding of Santa Rosa-Swift Creek culture in northwest Florida. He recognized three types of sites: middens , mound and midden complexes, and multiple mound centers. In 1970, Phelps presented a paper to the Internationalen Amerikanistenkongress in Stuttgart-Munchen, where he interpreted the presence of Mesoamerican glyph motifs in ceramics of the southeastern United States. Possible diffusion of Mesoamerican iconography around the Gulf coast and into the mainland southeast intrigued Phelps throughout his life. Also in 1970, Phelps left FSU, accepting a new faculty appointment at East Carolina University (ECU) in Greenville, North Carolina. There, he established a thriving and highly regarded program in anthropology and archaeology. At ECU, IN MEMORIAM 218 Phelps’ research provided baseline data about the prehistory of North Carolina’s Coastal Plain. Phelps served ECU in many capacities, including Director of the Archaeology Laboratory, Associate Director of the Institute for Historical and Cultural Research, Director of the Coastal Archaeology Office, and Director of the North Carolina Studies Program. Phelps was the principal investigator for dozens of field excavations in North Carolina. Projects of note include excavations at Tar River, which yielded evidence of human occupation more than 11,000 years ago. He also excavated Neoheroka Fort, a Tuscarora War site, and the Baum site, a multicomponent site containing an Algonkian Ossuary feature dating to the Late Woodland period’s Colington phase (Phelps 1980a, 1991). For both, he wrote nominations to the National Register of Historic Places (Phelps 1980b, 1992). Among archaeologists working in North Carolina today, there is a general recognition of the great importance of Phelps’ Archaeology of the North Carolina Coast and Coastal Plain: Problems and Hypotheses (1983). While Phelps’ primary interest in archaeology focused on Native American cultures, his “jurisdiction” included Roanoke Island and the Outer Banks, and so it was through that avenue that he became immersed in colonial archaeology as well. Phelps is highly regarded also for his contributions to prehistoric archeology in the mid-Atlantic region. He furthered our understanding of the complex, ranked, agricultural societies of the southern Algonkian culture (Phelps 1982, 1984, 1985). His work helped to clarify the territorial range of the Carolina Algonkian people, who he proposed ranged from the Neuse River northward to Chesapeake Bay’s Tidewater region. The Carolina Algonkians were the southernmost Algonkian language speakers, and Algonkian groups bore the brunt of European colonialism from the mid-Atlantic region northward. Phelps assisted the Meherrin tribe of Winton, North Carolina, as they navigated the process of federal recognition. He also assisted the Roanoake-Hatteras tribe to be recognized by the State of North Carolina. Phelps’ work in coastal North Carolina was so prolific that it cannot be given justice here. Suffice it to say that his contributions to colonial archaeology are the stuff of legend. Most notably, he was the discoverer and excavator of a sixteenth-century signet ring during the last field season of his life (1998), at the Cape Creek site (31DR1) in Dare County, on Hatteras Island. The ring’s discovery raised interest among colonial archaeologists because of the mystery of the Lost Colony. The find drew media attention, but the ring could not be tied to the Lost Colony (Figure 4). Phelps was honored late in his career by ECU when they dedicated the David S. Phelps, Jr., Archaeology Laboratory. While in retirement, he continued to contribute to the profession by participating in events hosted by the South East Florida Archaeological Society in Stuart, Florida. In 2003 and 2004, Phelps supervised graduate research in archaeology for Florida Atlantic University, including a Middle Woodland Ceramic Typology for Hatteras Island, North Carolina (Block 2005). In a tragic twist of fate, his retirement home in Fort Pierce Figure 4. In 1998, Phelps excavated the Kendall family signet ring from the Cape Creek site, Hatteras Island, North Carolina. was flooded twice and destroyed by Hurricanes Frances and Jeanne in 2004. Despite the loss of his personal archives, he continued to present public talks and to consult with colleagues in Palm Beach County. In 2006, he advised them as they worked on the report for the Boyer Survey of Lake Okeechobee (Davenport et al. 2011). He is missed by his Florida friends and by many in the Carolina region. References Cited Block, Dorothy 2005 = A Middle Woodland Ceramic Typology for Hatteras Island, North Carolina. M.A. Thesis, Department of Anthropology, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton. Coe, Joffre with contributions by Thomas D. Burke, S. Homes Hogue, Billy L Oliver, Stanley South, Michael Trinkley, and Jack H. Wilson, Jr. (Foreword by Leland G. Ferguson) 1995 Town Creek Indian Mound: A Native American Legacy. University of North Carolina Press. Davenport, Christian, Gregory Mount, and George “Boots” Boyer, with Robert Austin, Dorothy Block, and Matthew DeFelice 2011 The Boyer Survey: An Archaeological Investigation of Lake Okeechobee. Report prepared in fulfillment of 1A-32 State Research Permit, Number (0607.67), Division of Historical Resources, Tallahassee. Phelps, David Sutton 1964 = The Final Phases of the Eastern Archaic. Ph. D. dis- sertation, Department of Anthropology, Tulane Uni- versity, New Orleans. 1965 The Norwood Series of Fiber Tempered Ceramics. Southeastern Archaeological Conference Bulletin 2:65-69. 1966a_ Early and Late Components of the Tucker Site 219 THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST (SFR4). The Florida Anthropologist 19:11-38. 1966b Deptford Cross-Stamped: A Preliminary Statement. Southeastern Archaeological Conference Newsletter 10:123-127. 1968 Thom’s Creek Ceramics in the Central Savannah River Locality. The Florida Anthropologist 21:17- 30. 1969 Swift Creek and Santa Rosa in Northwest Florida. University of South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology Notebook:6-9, 14-24. 1970 Mesoamerican Glyph Motifs on Southeastern Pottery. In Verhandlung des XXXVIII Internationalen Amerikanistenkongress II, edited by T. Williams, pp. 89-99. Stuttgart-Munchen. 1980a Archaeological Salvage of an Ossuary at the Baum Site, Currituck County, North Carolina. Archaeology Laboratory, East Carolina University, Greenville. 1980b National Register Nomination: Baum Site, 31CK9, Currituck County, North Carolina. On file, North Carolina Division of Archives and History, Raleigh. 1982 A Summary of Colington Phase Sites in the Tidewater Zone of North Carolina. Report prepared for the Archaeology Branch, North Carolina Division of Archives and History, Raleigh. 1983 Archaeology of the North Carolina Coast and Coastal Plain: Problems and Hypotheses. In The Prehistory of North Carolina, edited by M. Mathis and J. Crow, pp. 1-51. Reprinted 1990. North Carolina Division of Archives and History. Raleigh. 1984 Archaeology of the Native Americans: The Carolina Algonkians. (Final Report of Grant Activities, 1983- 84; 36 pages). North Carolina Division of Archives and History, Raleigh. 1985 The Carolina Algonkians: Archaeology and History. Tar Heel Junior Historian 24:16-19. 1991 Excavations at Neoheroka Fort: Tuscarora Battle Site of 1713. Friends of North Carolina Archaeology Newsletter 7(2):1. 1992 Neoheroka Fort: 279 Years After the Battle. North Carolina Literary Review (New Series):102-103. Phelps, David Sutton, John Byrd, and Charles Heath 2007 National Register Nomination: Neoheroka Fort, Greene County, North Carolina. On file, North 2016 69 (4) Carolina Division of Archives and History. Raleigh. Sassaman, Kenneth E. 1993 Early Pottery in the Southeast: Tradition and Innovation in Cooking Technology. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa. Wauchope, Robert, series editor; Gordon F. Ekholm and Ignacio Bernal, volume editors 1971 | Handbook of Middle American Indians Volumes 10 and 11, The Archaeology of Northern Mesoamerica. University of Texas Press. Submitted by: Dorothy Block, 306 N.E. lst Avenue #202, Boynton Beach, FL 33435 uberfrau33460@gmail.com - £ ABOUT THE AUTHORS can About the Authors Mark C. Donop is a doctoral candidate in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Florida. He has conducted archaeological research in Florida, Texas, and North Carolina, as well as Brazil, Tobago, Peru, and Guyana. Donop’s doctoral dissertation research is focused on the long history of the Palmetto Mound (8LV2) archaeological site and its role in local and regional ritual practice. George D. Kamenov is an isotope geochemist at the Department of Geological Sciences at the University of Florida. He manages the ICP-MS laboratory at the department. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Florida. His research is focused on using isotopes as tracers in Earth and Environmental Sciences and Anthropology. Tiffany E. Birakis was raised in Myakka City, Florida. Tiffany’s curiosity for archaeology was sparked at a young age when she would find pottery sherds on her family’s rural property. She studied anthropology at the University of South Florida and participated in the Eleftherna field school in Crete, Greece. Tiffany was an assistant curator for the Collier County Museum system in Naples, FL, before returning to Bradenton where she is currently the Assistant Curator of Collections and Exhibitions at the South Florida Museum. She is also a board member of the Manatee County Heritage Preservation Board, and strives to educate visitors and the local community about the region’s rich cultural history. Matthew D. Woodside was born and raised in the San Francisco Bay Area. Matt studied architecture, worked as a flight instructor, a general contractor and historic preservationist before moving to Sioux Falls, South Dakota where he worked with South Dakota State Fish and Game. For the past six years he has been the Director of Exhibitions and Chief Curator at the South Florida Museum in Bradenton, Florida. Matt and his wife April are avid amateur archaeologists and enjoy fishing, kayaking, camping and exploring the back roads of Florida with their children Zachary (age 7) and Kate (age 5). Louis D. Tesar received his B.S. and M.S. in Anthropology from Florida State University. After 35 years as a professional archaeologist with the Florida Department of State, he retired from the Division of Historical Resources, Bureau of Archaeological Research in 2012. Beginning in 1965, he has authored and co-authored more than one hundred reports and articles on archaeological investigations and artifact identification, including aspects of fabrication and use-wear traits. For more than a decade he has prepared flat-bed scanner and digital camera photographic images of hundreds of stone, ceramic, shell, bone, metal and wood artifacts that have been assembled in comparative type files. During that same time he also replicated and documented activities replicating many of those types of artifacts. Nancy Marie White is a professor of anthropology at the University of South Florida and Registered Professional Archaeologist. Her recent research focuses on the archaeology of the Apalachicola-lower Chattahoochee valley region of northwest Florida, southwest Georgia, and southeast Alabama. Elicia Kimble is a graduate of the University of South Florida with a B. A. in anthropology and an M. A. in applied anthropology. After working in CRM in various states throughout the Southeast she returned to the University of South Florida in 2013, where she works as the undergraduate academic advisor in the Department of Anthropology. Join the Florida Anthropological Society Florida Anthropological Society membership categories and rates: Student: $15 (with a copy of a current student ID) Regular: $30 Family $35 Institutional: $30 Sustaining: $100 Patron: $1000 Benefactor: $2500 ¢ Student membership is open to graduate, undergraduate, and high school students. 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Box 7797, North Port, FL 34287 17. Palm Beach County Archaeological Society 9722 Alaska Circle, Boca Raton, FL 33434 BACK ISSUES OF 7HE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST ARE AVAILABLE FROM DEBRA J. WELLS, M.A., RPA BACK ISSUE COORDINATOR debrajwells@aol.com OR 1129 NW 143rpD STREET JONESVILLE, FL 32669 FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY, INC. NON-PROFIT U.S. POSTAGE PAID TALLAHASSEE, FL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH FLORIDA PERMIT NO. 801 4202 East FOWLER AVENUE, NES107 Tampa, FL 33620 RETURN SERVICE REQUESTED JEFFREY P. DU VERNAY, PH.D. CENTER FOR VIRTUALIZATION AND APPLIED SPATIAL TECHNOLOGIES TABLE OF CONTENTS FROM THE EDITORS 162 ARTICLES A RARE GALENA ARTIFACT FROM PALMETTO Mounp (8LV2), LEvy County, FLORIDA 164 MarK C. Donor, GEORGE D. KAMENOV, TIFFANY E. BirAKIs, MATTHEW D. WOODSIDE VERO BEACH, FLORIDA ENGRAVED DEPICTION OF A MAMMOTH: THE ENGRAVING’S ANTIQUITY QUESTIONED 174 Louis D. TESAR PALEO-INDIAN THROUGH PROTOHISTORIC ON ST. VICENT ISLAND, NORTHWEST FLORIDA 184 NANCY MariE WHITE AND ELICIA KIMBLE 2016 FreLp SCHOOL SUMMARIES 206 IN MEMORIAM 216 ABOUT THE AUTHORS Zan Copyright 2016 by the FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY, INC. ISSN 0015-3893