-7 -


(c) uses verylittle, if any, non-family labor; (d) employs a level of technology

which is usually described as traditional or primitive and which changes

slowly if at all; (e) suffers a level of living which while not close to the

physiologic minimum is still judged as meager by most standards; and (f)

operates within a decision-makingcontext-where the issue of family survival

predominates and therefore where his primar- goal of production is for home

consumption .*- ..-. t"I' for the market.

 The close inter-relationship between minimal subsistence levels of living

 and the prevalence of high degrees of risk and uncertainty. which are so

 frequently associated with subsistence and peasant farmers is a neglected but

 highly important influence upon the economic behavior of such farmers. 1/ The

 influence of risk and uncertainty upon economic behavior in agriculture has
 2/
 received occasional attention, but the predominant focus has been upon the
 3/
 commercial agriculture of modern, industrial nations rather than the subsis-

 tence agriculture of the developing world. The notable exceptions are the

 pioneering essays by Porter [1959], Dutia [1961], Gould [1963], Myren [1964]


 1/
 The problem of risk was frequently raised at the recent International
 Seminar on Change in Agriculture at the University of Reading, England
(September 3-14, 1968), Five of the eight specialists syndicates mentioned
risk as an important variable significantly affecting agricultural change.
The conference studied over 50 case studies of agricultural development
around the world. See also Uharton [1963a; 1963b].
2/
2 Cochrane [1955], Hildreth [1957], Johnson, et al. [1961], Reutlinger [1963],
Tedford [1964], and lUerrill [1965].

- This has been particularly true of empirical work: USA [Dillon and Heady,
1961; Johnson, 1962; Davidson and iiighell, 1963]; Australia [Officer, et.al.,
1967; Officer and Halter, 1968; Anderson and Dillon, 1968]; France [Boussard
and Petit, 1967]; and Sweden (Wolpert, 1964].