responds well to extensive management, as they are primarily herbivorous. Penaeid shrimp can also be cultured in tidal ponds. The culture of this "luxury" species may be desirable for countries seeking to expand their foreign exchange capacity. However, the technical expertise necessary to manage a shrimp culture opera- tion and other inputs are not readily available in the region. Another of the region's resources with multiple-use possibilities is the salt ponds. These hypersaline environments have been used traditionally for salt production. Penaeid shrimp culture is also possible in this environment. During the dry seasons, cysts of the brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) wash up on the shore in windows. These can easily be gathered and, with a minimum of processing, sold as premium larval fish food. Gracilaria, or "sea moss," as it is known locally, also offers pros- pects for mariculture, especially for wastewater aquaculture schemes. The alga can be used as a human food, fertilizer, livestock feeds, and for a wide range of uses in the food process- ing industry. The Regional Potential for Freshwater Aquaculture The development of freshwater aquaculture in the Lesser An- tilles is affected by two main sets of factors: terra-climatic and socio- cultural. The supply of fresh, running or standing bodies of water is quite limited. On islands where fresh water is abundant, topography and soil type often limit suitable pond sites. The use of freshwater for aquaculture may be constrained by priorities of water usage favoring household supply, crop irriga- tion, or industry. The lack of an aquaculture tradition, previous project failures, and the perception of aquaculture as a high-risk, technically sophisticated form of animal husbandry may further constrain freshwater aquaculture development. Market preferences for brightly colored reef fish affect consumer accep- tance of a cultured product. However, in light of the fact that consumption of fish is largely limited by the availability of foreign exchange, Caribbean people may quickly accept freshwater fish, assuming it is available on a regular basis. The risk of ciguatera fish poisoning, a significant health concern in some areas, may also facilitate consumer accep- tance of freshwater fish. The experience of the development of an inland fish culture in Jamaica is instructive for planners considering the introduction of this innovation to farmers of the small island-nations of the Eastern Caribbean. The context for freshwater aquaculture development is similar. The reeffish fishery is not large. The island imports about 15,000 mt of the 34,000 mt of fish consumed (Popma et al., 1984). Foreign exchange limits fish imports as well as imports of boats, outboards, and fuel. The joint Jamaica government/USAID project established as its object the increased availability of fish at a price commensur- ate with the consumer's income. Specifically, the project aimed to develop fish culture as a viable farming activity in the private sec- tor. That this goal has been achieved can be seen in (Table 3) which shows the exponential growth of fish production in the private sector. Initially, the government provided the capital for investments in land, labor, seed, feed, etc. Gradually subsidies were removed as interest grew among private sector investors. Fish farmers in Jamaica culture tilapia, a hardy, fast-growing fish native to Africa and the Middle East. They use a system of nursery ponds to support production ponds. Approximately 30% of the pond area is given over to breeding and fingerling produc- tion. The balance of the farm area is used for grow-out. About 80% of the fish farms are 4 ha or less. Initially growers fed their fish with a poultry ration. As interest grew, the local feed manufacturer began to produce a specifically formulated fish feed. Fish are grown out to 180-260 g in 10-15 week production cycles. In this way Jamaican fish farmers can TABLE 3. Annual production (lbs.) of T. Nilotica in public and private sectors in Jamaica from 1977 1982. Year Public Private Total 1977 2,200 ----- 2,200 1978 ,3,400 4,400 37,800 1979 17,200 8,300 25,500 1980 6,900 13,400 20,300 1981 7,-400 25,000 32,400 1982 9,900 59,700 69 600 Source: Cooke and Hooyoung (1983) produce between 1800-2900 kg/ha three or four times a per year. The farmers produced 545 mt in 1983, representing 3% of the total national consumption of fish (Popma et al., 1984). An economic analysis comparing the small-scale production of tilapia with alternative methods of producing protein (Table 4) shows that tilapia farming requires relatively smaller amounts of capital, and larger amounts of labor than hog or broiler opera- tions. Although tilapia culture is more labor-intensive, the returns are higher. This may be desirable for governments which advocate labor-intensive operations for the alleviation of rural unemployment. Key to the project's success was the development of a strong ex- tension effort. Services offered evolved over the course of the pro- ject. They included site evaluation, pond construction, seed stock, feed supplies, routine farm visits, harvest schedules, train- ing and organization. A system of host-country counterparts was also developed at all levels, assuring the continuation of research and extension once donor agency funding was terminated. Among the problems and constraints encountered, marketing of the fish proved to be the most difficult to overcome. Fish farm- ing families had little experience or desire to market fish. Integra- tion with the existing distribution system was not easily ac- complished. In addition, acceptance of freshwater fish by grass- roots consumers was slow to develop. The Jamaica inland fisheries project shows that fish culture operations undertaken by small farmers are viable. Although fish farming in Jamaica is conducted as a full-time operation, other culture systems, appropriate for small farmers, can be operated part-time or integrated with other components of a farming system. Cage or net pen culture can be outfitted with demand or self-feeders which significantly reduce labor requirements, an im- portant factor with part-time farmer/fishermen. Security is a ma- jor concern with farmers considering this culture system. Some islands receive enough rainfall to support year-round streams.These streams could be the source of water for a simple raceway system, employing wooden or earthen sluiceways. Water management is critical, especially during periods of flash flooding. A slow raceway type of system may be feasible for in- tegration with irrigated agriculture. Water enriched by fish waste can reduce fertilizer requirements and/or increase crop yields. Various animal husbandry-fish culture operations are possible for small farmers (Pullin and Shehahdeh, 1980). These include broiler-fish, pig-fish, livestock-fish, and duck-fish combinations. Manures are enriched by bacteria as they decompose in the fish pond, and are thus consumed directly by the fish. Manures pro- vide a nutrient base which stimulates other food chains. Broiler and hog fattening operations seem to be the best suited for in- tegration with fish culture in the Caribbean area as these livestock are already grown and accepted as a food item. VOL. XX-PROCEEDINGS of the CARIBBEAN FOOD CROPS SOCIETY 139