PAGE 1 AN EXPERI11ENT TN HODIFICAT W N OF MIDDLE SCHOOL TEACJIERS1 BEHAVIOR TllROUCH USING A TRATNING MODULE ON PERSON!1L KNOWLEDGE OF S1'UDCrrs By SISTER FRANCETTE KEILOCi.'-* 0.2415 0.9235 0.0922 5.2482* 3.1687 0.0286 0.7347 0.8132 0.3757 0.9187 0.4630 11. 3356** -62T R a t i o 1.464 2.886* 0.579 o. 723 1.254 -0.440 0.615 0.144 0.939 0.56 3 PAGE 72 groups following use of the module. In four of the five even, subtopic variables a significance at the .05 or .01 level was observed. Since the Pupil Questionnaire was designed as the pre and postassessment of the module, teachers were responsible for administering it. The T Test for R elated Measures w a s used to test the significance of this instrument. Twentyfive classes with a total of 504 children were analyzed. N 25 Mean Score Pretest 29.0487 Mean Score Posttest 31. 2167 Stan. Error of Diff. 0.689 T Ratio 3.145 d.f. 24 The null hypothesis was rejected since the t ratio 3.145 was significant at the .01 level. The results of this questionnaire gave evidence to support an affirmative answer to the question: Did the use of these skills by teachers have any effect on student attitudes or learning? The significant increase indicate d that students rated -63-their teachers higher on the posttest, indicating that they observed a change in behavior following the use of the module. PAGE 73 Discussion The purpose of this study was to determine whether using the module, "Using Personal Knowledge of Students," which is one of the Florida Modules on G eneric Te:.aching Competencies, would effect a change in middle school teachers' behavior when measured by an observation system and student questionnaire. This purpose derived basically from a consideration of Turner's Criterion Level 2 (53:7). Turner recommended that, "systematic analysis of the level of outcomes achieved by the teacher with the pupils he teaches" be performed (53:4). This study undertook this challenge through use of a pupil questionnaire admini.stcred before and after module usage. The outcomes shown in Table I and Table VII indicate an increase in use of the skills taught in the module. It should be noted that the questions involved having the students evaluate the teacher, but also implied a change in student behavior. For instance, question five stated, "Do Ps your teacher let you work on what you are interested in?" Table VIII shcms that t h e observation instrument also registered change in teachers' behavior following use of the module. Use of the observation instrwnent could PAGE 74 satisfy Turner's Criterion Levels 2 or 3. If applied to level 2 it is one of the two parts by which teachers may be appraised; namely, observation of the behaviors in which the teacher engages in the classroom. The other part of Level 2 has just been discussed with the student questionnaire. It could be applied to Criterion Level 3 by measuring teacher competence solely on the observation and eliminating the pupil performance data. The researcher prefers to include both since Rosenshine and Furst recommended the use of both high-inference (student questionnaire) and low-inference (observation) measures as a means of determining change in teacher behavior (52:57). Another impetus for using an observation system derived from Okey and Ciesla's report on designs for the evaluation of teacher training materials. They recommended that observation instruments should be developed to establish the degree to which the teachers incorporate the strategies in their classroom work (45:15) Comparing observation results with pupil questionnaire results was particularly helpful for evaluating this study. Observation has many more apparent weaknesses than questionnaires(43). -65- PAGE 75 Factors th.at were inhibiting in this study with regard to the observation were these: 1. Difficulty of obtaining observers n ecessitated continua l retraining o f new observer s A tota l of fiftee n ob servers was u s e d over the t w o month period. 2. Some t eache r s w ere comfortable being observed and some were overa n xious. 3. Some of the control teachers possesse d skills that were very similar to the on e s being d eveloped in the module. Th erefore, they achie v e d a hig h rating on the instrument. 4. Some behaviors that were cha n ged as a result of the module were not observable 5. Times chosen for the observation may have been inappropriate for teachers to d emonstrate skills learned in the module. 6. The instrument was designed for this study and had not had sufficient field-testing. The results of comparison group 0 5< o1 w ere especially significant to the researcher. In this comparison, the control group had no exposure to modules or related training materials previous to the study. Th e exper imenta l group, which also had no exposure to modules previous to the study, showed great enthusiasm in working throug h this module. In fact, four m embers of this group designed a special interest curriculum for their school following -66- PAGE 76 use of the module. The greatest factor influencing the lack of statistically significant difference in the other four comparisons was their previous exposure to many innovative ideas and programs which related highly with the skills of the module, thereby increasing observation ratings in the control groups. The effective use of Campbell and Stanley's Institutional Cycle Design could be an important outcome of this study. Its greatest asset was the ability to have a control and experimental group yet allow for all teachers who volunteered to use the module to be able to do so. Its greatest liability was the time constraint. Inherent in the process of PBTE is self-pacing. Therefore, placing a time limit violates this feature. If an open time schedule is conceived using this design then the researcher must be more aware of the possibility of maturation as a cause of internal invalidity. One of the many reasons volunteered by teachers for preferring modules to courses was the opportunity to practice what they were learning directly in their classrooms. This would support the research results by Sandefur that teaching behaviors are significantly modified by experience (55). -67-- PAGE 77 Conclusions The results of this study lead to the following con-clusions: 1. Teachers acquired the skills of the module, "Using Persona l Knowledge of Students" and used these skills in their classrooms This was evidenced through change measured by the observation instrument. While seven F and t ratios for the instrument were statistically significant, forty-nine out of fifty were in the same direction. 2. Teachers use of the skills of this module has an effect on the attitudes or learning of students. The stu-dent questionnaire resulted in at ratio that was signifi-cant at the .01 level. 3. The most discriminating variable on the observa-tion instrument was nature of the situation. This vari-able described whether the teacher or the pupils were the center of attention and whether commercial materials or student projects were in evidence in the classroom. 4. Using both low~and high-inference instruments is an effective way to measure change in teacher behavior becaus e they counterbalance and support or negate one another. In this study, the one comparison group on the observation instrument supported the change while the -68- PAGE 78 -69-other four did not. This would indicate that serious con sideration should be given to the sample groups in relation to whether they already possess many of the skills being taught. 5. Campbell and Stanley's Institutional Cycle Design was effective for field-testing a module. Implications and Suggestions for Further Research The results of this study imply that modules can be effective means of acquiring competencies. Using Turner's Criteria Level 2 and designing instruments that measure the teacher and pupil behaviors can increase evaluation information for PBTE. Inservice teachers who wish to fulfill certification requirements may be able to do so without attending courses. Since one of the inherent features of modules is their practicability, children will benefit from teachers change in behavior as they acquire new skills. As Kirby noted, training packages can aid schools in staff development (37). The results also support the suggestion of using one highand one low-inference measure to determine change in behavior. Basing the field-testing of modules and other training materials on the Institutional Cycle Design may be an effective way of increasing evaluative procedures. PAGE 79 Since PBTE is still in the formative stages, much research is still necessary, especially in the area of evalua-tion. Topics that could be considered for research are: 1. Testing new means of measuring competence. 2. Designing instruments which truly evaluate competencies. 3. Increasing involvement of students in measuring change in teacher behavior. 4. Testing modules to measure change in teacher behavior. 5. Improving observation instruments. 6. Comparing training materials and courses for mastery of competency. -70-7. Replicating use of a high-and low--inference instrument in a study measuring change in teacher behavior. 8. Designing training materials other than modules for achieving competencies. 9. Improving techniques of observation a. Sampling size b. Number of observers c. Time factors This study will add evidence in practice to the theory of PBTE that training, in the form of modules, provides a way for teachers to build on their individual skills and interests. By making the objectives and evidence of PAGE 80 assessment explicit to the learners at the outset of the program, there is no question of goals, hidde n agenda, and evaluative procedures. Periodic assessment and feedback guide the learner in mastering each performance objective. The learner attains the objective when he produces the evidence that he can perform the tasks acceptably. This researcher believes that PBTE has the potential to encourage teachers to become life-long learners. For this to be practiced, the assumption that no program is ever completely developed must become an actuality. Therefore, the success of PBTE may rest on its continual evaluation and redesign. -71- PAGE 81 APPENDICES APPENDIX A Copy of Student Interest Observation Instrument APPENDIX B -Copy of Module: Using Personal Knowledge of Students APPENDIX C -Copy of Pilot Test of Pupil Questionnaire PAGE 82 APPENDIX A PAGE 83 COPY OF: STUDENT INTEREST OBSER\1 A T ION INSTRUMENT Introduction: This instrument is designe d to measure how well the teacher has identified the personal interests of her students and incorporated them in the curriculum and school program. Situation: Participant observed in classroom where she has been using the module. Instructions: 1. Conduct thre e 5 minute observations checking any b ehaviors observed. 2. The categories may b e overlapping. 3. Total the even numbers and total the odd numbers separately. 1 2 3 Total 1111 J Student Interest Observation Instrument A. Nature of Situation 1. T occupies center of attention. 2. Ps and their work are center of attention. 3. Commercial or teacher-provided materials are in evidence. 4. Materials reflecting students interests are in evidence. B. Nature of the Problem 5. T organizes learning around Q posed by T. 6. T organizes learning around P's own problem or question. 7. T conducts activities without considering student interest. 8. T conducts activities b ased on student interest. 9. T shows no concern for p's exploration of new interests. 10. T tries to interest students in new ideas and activities. C. Use of Subject Matter 11. T relies heavily on single source (e.g. textbook) of information. 12. T makes a wide range of information and materials available. 13. T discourages P from relating interests in subject matter. 14. T used P's interests as subject matter. 15. 16. D. Evaluation T stops P from going ahead with will fail. T encourages p to put his ideas E. Differentiation plan which to a test. T knows 17. T has all P working at the same task at same time. 18. T has different P working at different tasks. 19. T holds all P responsible for certain material to be learned. 20. T has P work independently on what concerns P. Total Even Numbers Total Odd Numbers -74- PAGE 84 APPENDIX B PAGE 85 Copy of Modul e : Using Persona l Knowledge of Students Constructive Interaction Competency Area 2 Module 1: Using Personal Knowledge of Students Revised, 1973 FLORIDA MODULES ON GENERIC TEACHING COMPETENCIES pilot study draft University of Florida Gainesville PAGE 86 FLORIDA MODULES ON GENERIC TEACHING COMPETENCIES This module is one of a series prepared for teachers in Florida's schools. It is a packet of m aterials and procedures designed to help a teacher develop or improve some specific teaching skill or skills. This is a pilot study draft prepared for field testing in a number of Florida counties. Although the modules are directed specifically toward teachers of preadolescent children, most of them are appropriate for other teachers as well. All the modules use a common format which is based on the University of Houston approach to writ:i.ng modules. The series includes a "Module on Modules" which will quickly acquaint the reader with this format and its activities. The Florida Modules were written under the supervision of the University of Florida, College of Education. They are part of a project concerned with competency-based education for middle school teachers. The Middle School Project is funded in part by the State of Florida, Department of Education. Address inquiries to: Dr. Gordon Lawrence Norman Hall University of Florida Gainesville, Florida 32601 Department of Education Division of Elementary and Secondary Education Floyd T. Christian, Commissioner C 1973 Board of Trustees of Internal Improvement Funds for the Use and Benefit of the State of Florida -77- PAGE 87 USING PERSONAL KNOWLEDGE OF STUDENTS Written by; Sister Francette Keilocker PAGE 88 TABLE OF CONTENTS J:>ROSPECTUS 81 OBJECTIVES 83 Terminal Objectives 83 Specific Objectives 83 PREREQUISITES 85 FLOW CHART 86 INSTRUCTIONS FOR COMPLETION 87 PREASSESSMENT 88 Pupil Questionnaire 91 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE 1 93 Enabling Activities 93 Excerpts from Interest and Effort in Education 95 Summary of Research Study from Childrens' Interests 98 Study Guide on Theory and Research on Student Interest 102 Answer Key for Study Guide 104 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE 2 106 Instructions for Enabling Activities 106 Enabling Activities 106 Creative Writing Examples 109 Learning About Children by Observing Them 111 Children's Questions 113 Interest Questionnaire 115 The Interest Finder 117 Form for Recording Student Interest 118 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE 3 119 Enabling Activities 119 The Place of INterests in a Philosophy of Education 121 Kuder's Ten Interest Areas 124 Project FAIS, P. K. Younge Laboratory School 125 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE 4 130 Enabling Activities 130 How Can the Individual School Plan for the Special INterests of Each Student? 133 Interest Area Program in a Middle School 136 -79- PAGE 89 TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued ) Sample Special Interest Programs Clarksville Middle School Activity Program Poyner Junior High School Florence, South Carolina POST-ASSESSMENT MODULE BIBLIOGRAPHY CSONSUMABLE PACKET Pupil Questionnaire (Pre-assessment) Form for Recording Student Interest Under Separate Cover 70 copies 35 copies -80-139 139 141 142 143 PAGE 90 Module 2-1 PROSPECTUS At the tum of this century, John Dewey, in a book entitled Interest and Effort in Education, stated that, "Th e major difficulty with our schools is that they have not adequately enlisted the interests and energies of children in school work. 111 Since Dewey's time, the concern for identifying student interest anJ awakening new interest has become a topic of consideration for researchers, theorists and practitioners. Teachers today are much more concerned about ways of personalizing instruction. A significant aspect of the philosophy of the emergent middle school is the development of an instructional program that will capitalize upon the highly develope d inquisitiveness of the pre-adolescent child. Together with the need for individual teachers to incorporate student interest in the daily school curriculum, experts in middle school instruction recommend a special interest program as an integral part of the curriculum. This module will provide opportunities to explore both of these concepts. 1 John Dewey, Interest and Effort in Educatio~, (New York: Houghton Miffin Company, 1913), p. vii. -81- PAGE 91 Module 2-1 -82-In particular, this module will include the following: 1. Theory and research on student interest based on experts in the field. 2. Methods of determining the interests of students. 3. Methods of promoting new interests in students. 4. Means of incorporating students' interests into the curriculum or school program. 5. Means of initiating or enriching a special interest program in the middle school. PAGE 92 Module 2-1 OBJECTIVES Term inal Objective Upon completion of this module, the participan t will be able to identify the students' interests, incorporate them in learning experiences and begin implementing a special interest program in his school. ~ecific Objectives 1. Given readings on theory and research regarding interest of children, the participant will demonstrate to his own satisfaction a g eneral grasp of the concepts. 2. Participants will explore formal and informal methods of identifying the interests of students and utilize at least four of these methods to discover three interests of each of their students. 3. Participants will demonstrate the ability to incorporate the interests of students in the curriculwn by planning an activity that uses students' interests or develops new interests for students. -83- PAGE 93 Module 2-1 -84-4. Pa.rticipants will understand the rationale for the special interest program of the middle school and begin implementing or evaluating a special interest program in their school. PAGE 94 Module 2-1 PREREQUISITES There are no prerequisites for this module. If you are in a departmental teaching situation, however, it is recommend e d that you choose one group of children to work with in completing this module. You will also need to ask a fellow teacher to administer. the pre-and post assessment instrument. -85- PAGE 95 Recycle Read Prospectus FLOW CHART ,-----'-----------. Enabling Activities for Specific Objective Ill Enabling Activities for Specific Objective /12 Enabling Activities for Specific Objective 113. Enabling Activities for Specific Objective /14 Post-assessment -86-Pre-assessment yes PAGE 96 Module 2-1 INSTRUCTIONS FOR COMPLETION 1. Read prospectus. 2. Decide whether or not you wish to continue. a. No: Exit b. Yes: Take the pre-assessrnen t 3. Did you average above the midpoint (4 or S) on the rating scale for each pre-assessment item? a. Yes: Exit b. No: Move on to the appropriate Enabling Activities. Note that these Enabling Activities correspond with question numbers: Enabling Activities for Cover Questions Specific Objective 1 10, 11 Enabling Activities for Cover Question Specific Objective 2 3 Enabling Activities for Cover Questions Specific Objective 3 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9 Enabling Activities for Cover Questions Specific Objective 4 2, 6, 8, 9 4. Take the post assessment. 5. Did you average above the midpoint (4 or S) on this second rating scale for each item? a. Yes: Exit b. No: 1. Counsel 2. Recycle -87- PAGE 97 Module 2-1 PREASSESSHENT The preassessment measure for this module is an instrument that will assess from the students how much you are aware of their interests and how well these interests have been incorporated in the learning situation. The teacher b eing assessed should look upon the results as feedback: that is, a means of learning how he is perceived by students in order to build a better program centered around students' needs. The pre-assessment questionnaire is to be administered to students and tallied by a person other than the teacher being assessed. Complete anonymity of students must be assured. It is important that the person administering the assessment be unbiased, objective toward the teacher, the students and the instrument. The children can be expected to be influenced by his expectations: if they receive the impression that the person administering the test expects them to be fair, honest, objective and serious they are likely to render useful information. The tester should make clear, to the students, the concept of feedback, more importantly that feedback is for the purpose of giving information, is descriptive and non-evaluative, not vindictive, etc. -88- PAGE 98 Module 2-1 -89-The tester should make certain tha t all students understand the meaning of the scale and give the group som e e x ampl es. (a) Is the teacher fair in his rules and grades? 1 2 3 4 5 not at all a little sometimes many time s all the time (b) Is school a pleasant place to b e ? 1 2 3 4 5 not at all a little sometimes many times all the time The assessment in~trument is an 11 item rating scale. The teacher should score above the midpoint (4 or 5) on each item to be considered proficient in identifying and using student interests in his learning program. If this is not the case, on an item, he should select and work on the enabling activities for the specific objective related to that item. 1. If the low rating is on questions 10 or 11, the teacher should choose from activities for Specific Objective 1. 2. If the low rating is on question 3 the teacher should choose from activities for Specific Objective 2. 3. If the low rating is on questions 2,4, 5, 7, 8, 9, the teacher should choose from activities for Specific Objective 3. 4. If the low rating is on questions 2, 6, 8, 9, the teacher should choose from activities for Specific Objective 2. Please observe that completing enabling activities for an objective will possibly upgrade as many as six student responses on the questionnaire. (Refer to number 3 above). If the participant PAGE 99 Module 2-1 -90-has attained mastery of 4 out of 6 responses, it may not be necessary to work on that objective. The final decision rests on the judgment of the participant. It is recommended that the participant may wish to consult his peer panel or a group of fellow teachers. PAGE 100 Module 2-1 -91~upil Questionnaire To better teach boys and girls, teachers often need help in finding out how you like the things that happe n in the classroom. Please answer the following questions honestly, telling how you really feel, so that your teache r will do an even bette r job of helping you to learn. 1. Write down four things in which you are interested. 1. --------------------------2. --------------3. ---------------------------4. ---------------------------2. Do you have a chance to use these interests or study them in this class? 1 2 3 4 5 not at all a little sometimes many times all the time 3. Does your teacher know what you are interested in? 1 2 3 4 5 not at all a little sometimes many times all the time 4. Does your teacher ever plan activities that use your interest? 1 2 3 4 5 not at all a little sometimes many time s all the time 5. Does your teacher let you work on what you are interested in? 1 2 3 4 5 not at all a little sometimes many times all the time PAGE 101 Module 2-1 6. Does your teacher l e t you use your ideas in projects and school work? 1 2 3 4 5 not at all a little sometimes many times all the time 7, Does your teacher use many different kinds of books and materials? 1 2 3 4 5 not at all a little sometimes many times all the time 8. Do students in this class work on many different kinds of activities? 1 2 3 4 5 not at all a little sometimes many times all the time 9. Have you become interested in new ideas and activities in this class? 1 2 3 4 5 not at all a little sometimes many times all the time 10. Do you think this is an interesting class? 1 2 3 4 5 not at all a little sometimes many times all the time 11. Do most students think this is an interesting class? 1 2 3 4 5 not at all a little sometimes many times all the time -92- PAGE 102 Module 2-1 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE 1 Participants will explore theory and research on the topic of student interest. Enabling Activities Do the following activities sequentially. 1. Read the paper "Excerpts from Interest and Effort in Education" on page 95 and the "Summary of Research Study from Children's Interests" on page 98 2. Choose one of the following mea..~s of studying the theory presented in Activity 1. a. List the major concepts or new learnings gleaned from the two readings. b. Write a reflective analysis based on your interpretation of the two readings. c. Outline the two readings. d. Devise your o w n method of studying the material in the readings. e. Discuss the readings with members of your peer panel. -93- PAGE 103 Module 2-1 3. Choos e o n e o f the f ollowing a c t i vities. a. D emonstrate your co mpre h ension of the readings by compl eting the Study Guide o n pag e 102. You may compare your answers with those on page lOlt or refer to the two sources read to check your responses. .... 94 .... b. With a member of your peer p anel or a f ellow t eacher who has completed the readings, respond to the questions on the Study Guide on page 101 and then discuss your replies. PAGE 104 Module 2-1 Excerpts from Interest and Effort in Education2 Interest is active, objective and personal. We TAKE interest. To be interested in any matter is to be actively concerned with it. We say a man has m any interests to care -95-for. We talk about the rang e of a m an's interests, his business interests, local interests, church interests, etc. We identify interests with concerns or affairs. Interest does not end simply in itself, as bare feelings m ay, but is embodied in an object of regard. Interest is personal; it signifies a direct concern; a recognition of something at stake, something whose outcome is important for the individual. There are questions that teachers can ask to discover if the task is one that will enable the child to exert effort and interest. Is this person doing something too easy for him -something which has not a sufficient element of resistance to arouse his energies, especially his energie s of thinking? Or is the work assigned so difficult that he has not the resources required in order to cope with it -so alien to his experience and his ac:iuired habits that he does not know where or how to take holc..i? Between these two questions lies the teacher's task how shall the activities of pupils be progressively complicated by the introduction of difficulties, and yet these difficulties be of a nature to stimulate instead of dulling and merely discouraging? Good teaching, in other words, is teaching that appeals to established powers while it includes such NEW materials as will demand their redirection for a new end, this redirection requiring though -intelligent effort. Motivation related to interest some reason must be found in the PERSON, apart from the arithmetic or the geography or the manual activity tha t mi ght b e attache d to the lesson material so as to give it a leverage, or moving force. 2 Adapted from John Dewey, Interest and Effort in Education (New York: Houghton Miffin Company, 1913). PAGE 105 Module 2-1 -96-The clue we have followed in our discussion of interest is its connection with an activity engaging a person in a wholehearted way. Interest is not some one thing; it is a name for the fact that a course of action, an occupation, or pursuit absorbs the powers of an individual in a thorough-going way. But an activity cannot go on in a void. It requires material, subject-matter, conditions upon which to operate. Types of Educative Interest 1. Physical Activity -Bodily action in educative growth. Learning through the senses -freer utilization of play and occupational activities. 2. Sensory-motor -A higher form of activity involving the sensory-motor apparatus of the body is found when the control over external objects is achieved by means of tools of some sort, or by the application of one material to another. (Painting, clay modeling, singing, sewing, metal working, collection of materials for study in science, management of apparatus.) 3. Intellectual Interest -Instead of thinking things out and discovering them for the sake of the successful achievement of an activity, we institute the activity for the sake of finding out something. Planning ahead, taking notice of what happens, relating this to what is attempted, are parts of all intelligent or purposive activities. When anyone becomes interested in a problem as a problem and in inquiry and learning for the sake of solving the problem, interest is distinctively intellectual. 4. Social Interest -Interest in persons is a strong special interest and also one which intertwines with those already named. Children's activities are so bound up with others, and what others do touches them so deeply and in so many ways, that it is only at rare moments, perhaps of a clash of wills, that a child draws a sharp line between other people's affairs as definitely theirs and his own as exclusively his own. No doubt some of the repulsiveness of purely abstract intellectual studies to many children is simply the reflexes of the fact that the things -the facts and truths -presented to them have been isolated PAGE 106 Module 2-1 -97-from their human context. Impersonal material should be presented so far as possible in the role it actually plays in life. The strength of the interest in other persons and in their activities and aims is a natural resource for making activities broad, generous, and enlightened in scope; while the physical, manual and scientific interests in their identification with OBJECTS make for a broadening of the self. The psychology of interest may be stated as follows: An interest is primarily a form of self-expressive activity that is, of growth that comes through acting upon nascent tendencies. If we examine this activity on the side of what is don e we get its objective features, the ideas, objects etc., to which the interest is attached, about which it clusters. If we take into account that it is self-development, that self finds itself in this content, we get its emotional or appreciative side. Any account of genuine interest must, therefore, grasp it as out-going activity holding within its grasp an object of direct value. Interest may be direct or indirect. It is direct when it puts itself forth with no thought of anything beyond. It satisfies in and of itself. Play is an example of this type. In the indirect type things indifferent or even repulsive in themselves often become of interest because of assuming relationships and connections of which we were previously unaware. A math lesson previously uninteresting can take on new life when applied to something in the child's life which personally affects him such as learning averages through using the baseball player's average. In reality, the principle of "making things interesting" means that subjects be selected in relation to the child's present experience, powers, and needs; and that (in case he does not perceive or appreciate this relevancy) the new material be presented in such a way as to enable the child to appreciate its bearings, its relationships, its value in connection with what already has significance for him. It is this bringing to consciousness of the be_ c1rin g s of the new material which constitute the reality, so often p erverted both by friend and foe, in "making things in te res ting." CRITERION FOR JUDGING WHETHER THE PRINCIPLE OF INTEREST IS BEING RIGHTLY OR WRONGLY EMPLOYED. Interest is normal and reliance upon it educationally legitimate in the degree in which the activity in question involves growth or development. PAGE 107 Module 2-1 -98Summary of Research Study fEom Childrens' Inte.rests3 Using "The Interest Finder" on page. 117 researchers studied the interests of over 3,000 children in grades 1-12. The following stnnmarizes some of the main findings and conclusions of this study. 3 1. Children at all age levels are much preoccupied with people and person.al relations. Many children mentioned people when de.scribing their wishes, likes, and interests, even though they were questioned in terms of WHAT they liked or wished rather than in terms of WHOM. 2. There is a strong element of self-interest and selfreliance in childrens' ideas about life and the world and the world at large that this should be taken into account in what is taught. 3. The findings also emphasize the great importance children attach to gifts. 4. There is much variation between interests of children in different schools and in different classes, notably in connection with the arts and crafts. 5. Many lines of evidence in this study are in keeping with findings that have emerged from earlier studies which indicate that childrens' interests are to a large degree learned. What a child likes to do is influenced by what he has had an opportunity to learn to like to do, provided, of course, that he not only has the opportunity but also has the ability to make use of it. 6. The findings show an impressive increase with age in interest in various forms of self-improvement, vocational fitness or placement, educational opportunity and understanding of self and others. Adapted from Arthur T. Jersild and Ruth J. Tasch, Childrens' Interests and What They Suggest for Education (New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1949). PAGE 108 Module 2-1 -99-7. At the middle school level, and even more at the high school level, there frequently ap pears to be a discrepancy between the child's o,rn goals and his interpretation or understandi ng of the goals of the school or of ways in which his personal goals can be .E_romoted by what the school offers. 8. The findings show a decline with age in educational morale in practically all communities included in the study. One implication m entioned was that in most junior 2nd senior hig h schools co mpared with elementary schools -the program centers more around academic subjects than around children. 9. Topics under the general heading of the social studies were mentioned unfavorably more often than favorably in most of the community groups and in most age groups included in the study. 10. The results of this study indicate discrepancies, or lack or parallels, between childrens' expressed interests and other evidences of needs in their daily lives. 11. There was frequent mention of chores and everyday work when children described what they disliked most outside school. Children of junior high age complained more frequently than children of senior high school age about the kind of work they had to do during outof-school hours. 12. There were marked differences from community to conununi ty in the extent to which children expressed friendliness and good will toward one another, or expressed ill will, hostility, fear, and other sentiments that denoted social friction. 13. There was some evidence that interests ~dults possess and can, in turn, help their children to acquire are considerably influenced b y the inte rests and skills the adults happened to acquire whe n they were children. 14. Several findings indicate that the range of children's out-of-school interest is quite restricted compared with children's potentialities. PAGE 109 Module 2-1 15. The findings give evidence that there is a great deal of repetitive and unproductive activity in children's out-of school lives. 16. Along with this many chilren express boredom. -100-17. Certain activities that occupy a great deal of time (such as listening to the radio) do not seem to represent deep interests. There are many indications that children are marking time with certain activities for lack of anything b etter to do. 18. In most communities there is a r elatively small amount of overlapping between the thing s childre n report they are most preoccupied with in school and the things that preoccupy them most in their lives outside school. 19. There was very low frequency of m ention of intellectual, artistic, or cultural interests or of constructive interests or hobbies in children's accounts of their out-of-school interests. 20. The findings indicate that schools generally seem to encourage children's interests and skills in the fine and practical arts to a greater extent than do homes or the community at large. 21. Yet there are many indications that the range of children's interests tend to be restricted by stereotyped notions and conventional ideas in school, as well as out of school, as to what children might, could, or should be interested in. 22. There is evidence in this and in an associated study that a large number of parents restrict themselves to a limited range of activities when they spend free time with children. 23. There are incidental findings in the present study and mor e direct finding s in an associated study to the effect that many parents seem to have a limited conception of the resources in the COJ1l!l1Ullity that are available for the cultivation of children's interests. PAGE 110 Module 2-1 24. 25. There are indications in this and in an associated study that pan!nts are often gratified by interests their children develop, yet tend to regard them passively. Hany parents, for instance, appreciate their children's art work and yet do not seem to -101-take as active an interest in their children's artistic development as in many other aspects of their education. The findings suggest that th~re is need for the school and the community to deal together with the fact that the typical American child learns to utilize and to enjoy only a few of his mc.ny talents. PAGE 111 Module 2-1 -102Study Guide on Theory and Research on Student Interest 1. A criterion that can be used for judging whether the principle of interest is being rightly or wrongly us e d is -------2. What do we mean when we say interest is active, objective and personal? -----------------------------3. Explain the principle of "making things interesting." ----4. Can you give an example of direct and indirect interest? ---5. Comment briefly on each of the types of educative interest. a. Physical activity __________________ b. Sensory-motor activity ________________ c. Intellectual interest -----------------d. Social interest ---------------------6. If interests are learned, as Jersild states from his research, what does this imply for teachers? ---------------7. Can you state at least five findings from Jersild's research study on children's interests? 1. --------------------------------2. ---------------------------------3. 4.---------------------------------5. PAGE 112 Module 2-1 -103-8. State any other facts that were new learnings for you or which caused you to reflect in a new way on the interest of children. PAGE 113 Module 2--1 Answer Key for Study Guide 1. A criterion for judging whether interest is b eing used rightly is growth or development of students. 2. Interest is active when the student becomes involved and actively concerned with a matter. It is objective when it does not limit his interests to feelings but embodies them in objects of regard. It is personal when it represents a direct concern -something at stake. -104-3. "Making things interesting" involves bringing to consciousness the relationship new material has to experiences that already have significance for the child. 4. Example of direct interest -play Example of indirect interest -fractions in math take on interest when related to dividing a pie for distribution to 6 class members. 5. Educative interest may be shown through a. Physical activity -Using the body to learn. Play and occupational activities are examples of this type. b. Sensory-motor activity Use of tools or applying one material to another. Examples might be painting, carving, sewing. c. Intellectual interest -Becoming interested in a problem as a problem and in inquiry and learning for the sake of solving the problem. d. Social interest -Interest in other persons and in their activities and aims. 6. It implies that teachers are responsible for developing new interests in students. Teachers should also be aware of whether their curriculum is interesting to students and devise ways of causing uninteresting material to become indirectly interesting. It would also be helpful to periodically determine new interests of students and capitalize on this information to enrich the curriculum. 7. Check your answers with the research study. PAGE 114 Module 2-1 8. Personal information, Scoring Procedures Points may b e assi gned Question 1 -10 points 2 -20 points 3 -10 points in the following manner: 4 -20 points 5 20 points 6 10 points 7 10 points -105- PAGE 115 Module 2-1 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE 2 Participants will explore forma l and informal methods of identifying the interests of students and utilize at least four of these methods to discover three interests of each of their students. Instructions for Enabling Activities A. Keep a file folder on each child. As you complete an activity file the information in the child's folder. B. The first 5 activities are informal means of determining student interest. Complete activity land then choose one more informal activity from numbers 2 to 5. C. Numbers 6 to 8 are formal methods (meaning they have been used in research and found effective with children.) Choose two of these activities, D. As you complete this objective you should have four interest finders in each child's file, For each child, make out a form like the one on page D8 and complete the sections entitled "Name" and "Present Interests." NOTE: If you teach in a departmental situation you should choose one of your classes for use in this module, Enabling Activities 1. Ask your students to keep a log or journal for one week of all the activities, interests, that they engage in both inside -106- PAGE 116 Module 2-1 and outside of school. Give them tine in class everyday to write this log and suggest that they be as specific as possible. For example, if they write that they watched -107-TV, ask them to write the program and time. If they attended a scout meeting, ask them to explain everything they did at the meeting. 2. Have the children do an art project that would reveal interests. For example, suggest that they look through a magazine and cut out all the pictures, captions, etc. that say "WHO AM I" and make a collage. 3. Use the medium of creative writing to discover the interests of children. Examples might be used such as the ones on pagel09 of this module. 4. Conduct an informal observation of each student. Single out one individual to study, at a time, and keep an anecdotal record of his activities. A suggested list of clues to watch for when observing children is given on page 111. 5. Have children bring snapshots of themselves at their favorite spot at school and conduct a discussion sharing explanations of pictures. 6. In a research study on childrens questions, Emily Baker discovered that this can be a valuable means of determining PAGE 117 Module 2-1 -108-student interest. Listed on page 113 are the directions. that you would give the students to use this method of determining interest. 7. Torrance, in his book Creative Learning and Teaching suggests a questionnaire for discovering what are the interests of children. This QUESTIONNAIRE may be found on pages 115-116. 8. Jersild and Tasch used a tool called "The Interest Finder" in their research study. It may be found on page 117. PAGE 118 Module 2-1 -109-Creative Writing Examples4 You, The Magician Sometimes, when things aren't going the way we'd like them to go, it seem s to us that it would be mighty hand y if we could change the world a little, In this exercise you'll be given an opportunity to imagine that you can change things the way you'd like to have them be, If you had magic powers, what things would you change? 1. What would taste better if it ,-1ere sweeter? 2. What would be more satisfying if it were nearer? 3. What would be more valuable if it could float? 4. What would be nicer if it were smaller? 5. What would last longer if it were elastic? 6. What would be more fun if it were faster? 7. What would be more refreshing if it were green? 8. What would be more useful if it were lighter? 9. What would be more pleasant if it were silent? 10. What would be more interesting if it were shorter? Investigating a Concept One teacher learned much about his students by asking them to respond to the following events. The students were asked to write what "promises" these events held for them. 4 E. Paul Torrance and ILE. Myers, Creative Learning and Teaching (New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1970) pp. 125 and 143. PAGE 119 Module 2-1 -110-the rumble of thunder; the smell of oil; the sound of a teacher clearing his throat; the scratching of a dog; the hissing of steam; the ringing of a bell; a baby beginning to cry; the sputtering of a motor; and the ringing of a telephone. Other ideas for creative writing may be found in the reference quoted for this activity. PAGE 120 Module 2-1 5 Learning About Children by Observing Them This is a list of clues to watch for when observing children: -111-1. Does he demonstrate self-directed activity? Productive working, reading, writing, constructing with interest. 2. Does he pay rapt attention? Listening attentively, watching carefully; concentrating on a story being told, a film being watched, a record played. 3. Does he share and help others? Contributing ideas, interests, materials, helping; responding by showing feelings (laughing, smiling, etc.) in audience situations, initiating conversation. 4. Does he show positive social interaction? Mutual give and take, cooperative behavior, integrative social behavior studying or working together where participants are on a par. 5. Does he seek support, assistance, and information? Asking teachers or significant peers for help, support, sympathy, affection, etc.; being helped; receiving assistance. 5 Adapted from "A Coping Analysis Schedule for Educational Settings," Robert L. Spaulding, Educational Improvement Program, Duke University, 1966. PAGE 121 Module 2-1 6. What does he do with unassigned time? Interest others in his projects, hobbies, etc; Become interested in other peoples interests; Daydream or not show real interest in anything. 7. How does he use his free time at lunch? -112- PAGE 122 Module 2-1 Children's Questions6 Educators recognize childrens' questions as an avenue along which they travel in an effort to make their needs and interests known. It is suggested that the directions be given at the beginning of a morning or afternoon session and that the children be permitted to keep their papers until the close of that session. DIRECTIONS FOR STUDENTS Girls and Boys: -113-Often you want to ask questions. Sometimes people seem too busy to listen to your questions. Sometimes it is almost time for school to close or for you.to go to another class when you want to ask your questions. Sometimes there are so many who want to ask questions that you do not get a chance to ask yours. A teacher who works with boys and girls is eager to know what questions you would like to ask if you could have an opportunity to ask all that you wish to ask. This teacher thinks that if teachers knew more about the questions you want to ask them, maybe they could give more time and attention to your questions. This morning you may have time to write all the questions you would like to ask. Take a piece of p aper. In the upper right-hand corner write your name. Below that write your grade. Below that write the word girl, if you are a girl. Write the word boy, if you are a boy. 6 Emily V. Baker, Childrens Questions and Their Implications for Planning the Curriculum (New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1945) p. 7. PAGE 123 Module 2-1 On this piece of paper write, any time during this morning, the questions you would like to ask about anything. Write only the questions that really concern you. They may -114-be about science, geography, current events, history, spelling, English, music, art, or anything else that you want to ask about. Begin each question on a new line. You may number the questions. Do not worry about spelling. If you are not sure of the spelling of a word, do the best you can. Leave your paper with your teacher before you go home this noon. PAGE 124 Module 2-1 -115-Interest Questionnaire7 Name Birthdate ------------Address -------------------------------When you have some free time, do you like to read? --------Do you like to write letters to friends or relatives? -----Why or why not? --------------------------Do you like to daydream sometimes? ----------------Do you like to invent things? What kinds of things do -----you like to invent? ------------------------Do you like to repair things (such as broken toys, bicycles, dolls, games, etc.)? What kinds of things do you like -----to repair? ----------------------------Do you dislike carrying out routine tasks (such as washing or drying dishes, moving trash or garbage, walking the dog, baby-sitting on the weekends for your parents, etc.)? ----What are the tasks that you like the most? 7 E. Paul Torrance and R. E. Myers, Creative Learning and Teaching (New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1970) pp. 124, 125. PAGE 125 Module 2-1 -116-Do you like to make up stories and write them down? _______ Do you enjoy working more by yourself or with othe r people? __ Why? ---------------------------~---What kinds of activities give you the most satisfaction? ----Do you ever disagree with your parents? --Do you tell them that you disagree with them? --Why or why not? -------Would you like to become a good student? ____________ What could you do to become a better student? -----------Would you like to express yourself more freely in class? ----Why? -------------------~------------At home? ---Why? ------------- PAGE 126 Module 2-1 The Interest Finder8 The Interest Finder is a one-page form which asks first for the child's name, age, grade, and sex, the names of his teacher and his school, the date of the investigation. It then asks the child to respond to certain items which have been used more or less widely in earlier studies: My three wishes: What I'd like to learn more about at school: What I don't care to study about: What I like best in school: What I like best outside school (that is, away from school, when I'm not at school): What I like least at school: What I like least outside school (that is, away from school, when I'm not at school): What I want to be or do when I grow up: The most interesting thing I have done at school during the past week or so: One of the places I especially like to go in-----: One of the happiest days in my life: 8 -117-Arthur T. Jersild and Ruth J. Tasch, Childrens' Interests and What They Suggest for Education, (New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1949), p. 2. PAGE 127 1. 2. 3. 4. Module 2-1 -118-Form for Recording Student Interest Name: Present Interests* New Interests Curriculum Project Key for interpreting categories Present Interests -List in this column any interests you have identified through using the formal and informal methods described in objective 2. New Interests -List in this column any interests that the child develops from your effort to expose him to new interests. Curriculum Project -List in this column the means through which the child's interest was incorporated in the curriculum or school program. (For example, it might be through independent study, activity programs, mini-courses, units of study, etc. Specific statements here are generally the most useful). PAGE 128 Module 2-1 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE 3 Participants will demonstrate the ability to incorporate the interests of students in the curriculum by planning an activity that uses students' interests or develops new interests for students. Enabling Activities Complete activity 1 and then choose one other activity from numbers 2-4. 1. Read "The Place of Interests in a Philosophy of Education" on page 121. Does the author differ in his point of view on student interest from Dewey? Do you agree with this philosophy? Why or why not? You may wish to discuss this with your peer panel. 2. List one interest from each of your students under Kuder's ten major areas of interest. Kuder's list is on page 124. Group students together according to these categories. Plan with them a unit of study or a learning station that will incorporate their interests. 3. Study the sample lesson plans on upper elementary social studies that are used in Project FAIS in the P. K. Younge Laboratory School (pp. 125-129). Choose one of these plans and use it with your class or write a plan of your own incorporating interests or student self-knowledge. -119- PAGE 129 Module 2-1 4. Concentrate on one unit of study that you are presently teaching. Devise 5 different activities resulting -120-in varied learning experiences that could evolve into new interests for students. Suggest that each student choose one of the activities about which he has t~e least knowledge and experience and work on that activity. Devise an evaluation form that will enable you to determine how many students became involved in new interests and how many showed no interest in the activity. Discuss the results with the students. PAGE 130 :Module 2-1 The Place of Interests in a Philosophy of Education9 We have noted in the foregoing discussion that there may be many gaps between the interests children acquire and those they might acquire that children's expressed wishes and interests often fail to reflect certain lacks and dislocations in their lives, that many children seem to move into adult years with resources for activity and enjoyment that are meager compred with the potentialities with which they are born. We have more or less tacitly assumed that it is a good thing for a ciild to cultivate interests that enable him to realize his varied potentialities. Does this mean, in its simplest terms, that the more numerous and varied a child's interests the better off he will be? Not at all. The child who is interested in ten things is not necessarily healthier or happier or more comfortable to live with than a child who is interested in five things or two. A hoard of interests, like a miser's hoard of gold, may represent weakness rather than strength. Certainly we cannot maintain that an anxious or insecure person who happens to pursue ten interests is better than -121-a serene person who has only one simple happy. It is not alone the number and scope of a person's interest that count but the way his interest, whether many or few, functions, the needs they serve, the avenues of life they open. Even so, the child who lives in an environment which provides an opportunity for the learning of many varied interests will probably be better situated than a youngster in an environment that makes provision for only a limited range. The reason is not that many interests are necessarily better than a few, but, rather, that the richer the opportunities, the more likely it is that the person will find a way of acquiring interests which are best suited to his particular gifts and which will be most serviceable to him. 9 Arthur T. Jersild and Ruth J. Tasch, Children's Interests and What They Suggest for Education. (New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1949), pp. 85-87. PAGE 131 Module 2-1 -122-The idea of making provJ.sion in the home, in the school, and in the community for helping the child to acquire interests best suited to the kin