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interwoven with the cognitive elements. Learner success . depended
not on cognitive skills alone, but also on having the social skills
that enabled him to participate in the situations in which the new
language was used" (Fillmore, 1976, p. vii).
Krashen's (1978) focus is on adult second language acquisition
and what he calls theory of the Monitor Model. His model posits that
conscious language learning is available only as a monitor which cor
rects speech production, sometimes before and sometimes after output.
The Monitor is not always functioning in speech production because
often there is not enough time to think and consciously apply gram
matical rules. Frequently,the speaker may be more engrossed in the
message than the form. Conscious awareness of grammar is one of the
major distinctions between adult and child second language learning.
Psychological changes that occur with the onset of puberty may also
heighten feelings of vulnerability during adolescence. The combination
of increased ability for abstract thought and a sense of reluctance to
reveal one's self may cause overuse of the Monitor, and result in re
luctance to speak in the new language. Krashen's findings on adult-
child language learning differences are supported by the work of Snow
and Hoefnagel-Hohle (1978) who find older learners have an advantage
over younger students in acquiring rule-governed aspects of second
language syntax and morphology.
In reviewing research relating second language acquisition to
aptitude, Krashen (1978) finds that integrative motivation, the desire
to become part of the culture of the language, and self-confidence
work together to facilitate the production of naturalistic speech. The